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Lithuania 


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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


D  .M  -Krp  ssovsky. 


LITHUANIA 

Facts     Supporting     Her    Claim 

for   Reestablishment   as  an 

Independent  Nation 


K-> 


Published  by 

The  Lithuanian  National  Council 

Washington,  D.  C. 


COMPILED  BY 
DR.  J.  J.  BIELSKIS,  Member  Lithuanian  National  Council 


DK 

5-11 
PREFACE         L?  Lvi 

The  present  war  began  through  a  ruthless  attempt  to  override 
the  rights  of  a  small  Nation — Serbia.  It  took  its  present  form 
through  a  further  invasion  of  the  rights  of  another  small  Nation — 
Belgium.  Certain  it  is  that  this  war  will  have  been  fought  in  vain 
if  the  rights  of  small  Nations  ever}'where  are  not  established  and 
safeguarded  by  the  treaty  of  peace  which  Allied  victory  will  impose. 

The  basis  of  delimitation  for  small  Nations  is  not  easy  to  find ; 
for  neither  race,  nor  tongue,  nor  religion  can  alone  be  considered; 
nor  is  numerical  preponderance  upon  the  soil  always  to  be  taken  as 
a  chief  factor.  Happy,  therefore,  in  the  light  of  the  new  day  that 
is  dawning,  is  that  small  Nation  whose  blood,  language,  faith  and 
geographic  situation  combine  to  establish  its  cartographic  form 
unmistakably. 

Such  a  people  are  the  Lithuanians,  whose  proudest  boast  of 
national  self-assertion  throughout  long  generations  of  severe  re- 
pression has  been  the  preservation  of  their  language  amidst  a  flood 
of  linguistic  corruption,  of  their  faith  against  the  most  fanatical 
of  hostile  proselytization,  and  of  their  traditions  in  the  face  of  the 
most  rigorous  of  official  cruelty.  To  them  at  length  the  shifting 
fortunes  of  war  have  brought  the  definite  opportunity  for  the  real- 
ization of  their  national  ideals  of  freedom  and  of  progress.  The 
Russian  debacle  has  delivered  them  from  the  hand  of  Russian 
only  to  pass  them  beneath  the  yoke  of  the  Hun.  That  they  can 
remain  there  is  as  unthinkable  as  that  Belgium  shall  not  be  de- 
livered and  restored.  That  they  can  be  returned  to  Muscovite 
mastery  is  equally  unbelievable  in  view  of  the  tragedies  which  the 
past  year  has  brought  forth  in  every  quarter  where  the  White  Czar 
once  ruled.  That  they  shall  be  given  the  opportunity  to  regain 
their  ancient  estate  and  their  one-time  glory  is  the  only  course 
which  statesmen  who  think  in  just  terms  of  the  future  can  approve. 

To  summarize  the  equitable  demands  of  this  people  and  to 
enlighten  the  American  mind — which  we  needs  must  think  will  be 
the  controlling  force  at  the  peace  conference  table — this  little 
brochure  has  been  prepared.  Its  statements  are  fully  authenticated, 
its  conclusions  are  fully  warranted.  That  it  will  succeed  in  its 
mission  is  the  earnest  hope  of  all  who  have  studied  the  past  and  who 
believe  in  the  future  of  the  small  Nations  of  the  world. 

GEORGE  H.  MOSES, 
Former  American  Minister  to  Greece. 
Concord,  New  Hampshire,  14  June,  1918. 

835323 


INTRODUCTORY 

One  of  the  vital  problems  which  miist  be  solved  if  the  World 
War  is  to  end  wars  is  that  of  nationalities — the  admittance  of  all 
living  nations  to  the  Family  of  Nations,  The  importance  of  the 
proper  settlement  of  this  question  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized. 

Prof.  Michels,  in  his  invaluable  work.  Political  Parties,  says: 
'The  principle  of  nationality  was  discovered  for  the  solution  of  the 
racial  and  linguistic  problem,  which,  unsolved,  has  continually 
threatened  Europe  with  war  and  the  majority  of  individual  states 
with  revolution.  Finally  the  principle  of  self-government,  the 
corner-stone  of  democracy,  has  come  to  be  regarded  as  furnishing 
a  solution  of  the  problem  of  nationality,  for  the  principle  of  na- 
tionality entails  in  practical  working  the  acceptance  of  the  idea  of 
popular  government.  The  importance  of  the  principle  of  nationality 
is  undeniable,  and  most  of  the  national  questions  of  Western  Europe 
can  be  and  ought  to  be  solved  in  accordance  with  this  principle ;  but 
matters  are  complicated  by  geographical  and  strategic  frontiers; 
moreover,  the  principle  of  nationality  cannot  help  us  where  nation- 
alities can  hardly  be  said  to  exist,  or  where  they  are  intertangled  in 
inextricable  confusion."^ 

President  Wilson  in  his  memorable  message  to  Congress,  Feb- 
ruary 11,  1918,  stated  that  this  Great  European  War  "had  its  roots 
in  the  disregard  of  the  rights  of  small  nations  and  of  nationalities 
which  lacked  the  union  and  the  force  to  make  good  their  claim  to 
determine  their  own  allegiance  and  their  own  forms  of  political  life." 
This  great  statesman  sees  that  one  important  stride  toward  a  lasting 
peace  is  the  recognition  of  the  principle  of  nationalities,  and  that 
the  settlement  of  all  disputes  involved  in  this  war  must  give  high 
consideration  to  this  principle.    He  says  further : 

"Every  territorial  settlement  involved  in  this  war  must  be  made 
in  the  interest  and  for  the  benefit  of  the  populations  concerned,  and 
not  as  a  part  of  any  mere  adjustment  or  compromise  of  claims 
amongst  rival  states ;  and  that  all  well  defined  national  aspirations 
shall  be  accorded  the  utmost  satisfaction  that  can  be  accorded  them 


^"Political  Parties,"  by  R.  Michels,  Professor  of  Political  Economy 
and  Statistics,  University  of  Basle. 


without  introducing  now  or  i)erpetuating  old  elements  of  discord  and 
antagonism  that  woukl  he  likely  in  time  to  break  the  peace  of  Europe 
and  consequently  of  the  world." 

It  has  been  said  only  the  living,  organized  nations  should  be 
considered  as  candidates  for  the  Family  of  Nations,  many  grouped 
nationalities  are  hardly  conscious  of  their  being,  and  are  submerged 
by  the  dominating  influence  of  powerful  nations  to  which  they  are 
related. 

On  the  other  hand  there  are  several  nations,  which,  although 
surrounded  by  other  more  powerful  nations  and  forced  in  many  con- 
temptible ways  to  abandon  their  national  aspirations,  have  succeeded, 
under  grave  difficulties,  in  retaining  not  only  their  national  life,  but 
also  have  been  active  in  forming  numerous  educational,  political 
and  economical  institutions.  While  slowly  and  gradually  advancing, 
they  are  always  keen  to  seize  every  opportunity  making  toward 
liberation  from  foreign  domination. 

Many  of  these  nations  differ  greatly,  racially  and  linguistically, 
from  those  under  whose  rule  they  are  forced  to  live,  and,  unless  they 
are  granted  the  right  of  self-government,  there  always  will  be  fric- 
tion between  nations.  This  has  been  demonstrated  in  European 
countries  by  countless  uprisings  for  emancipation.  Such  conditions, 
obviously,  menace  the  peace  of  the  world. 

This  booklet  treats  of  one  of  these  oppressed  nations — Lithu- 
ania— its  history,  the  legal  aspects  of  its  ancient  treaties  and  its 
aspirations  for  the  future. 

LITHUANIAN  NATIONAL  COUNCIL. 


LITHUANIAN  ETHNOGRAPHY 

Lithuania  is  situated  in  the  basin  of  the  Nemunas  (Niemen), 
and  the  Dauguva  (Dvina)  rivers,  on  the  southeast  coast  of  the 
Baltici  Sea. 

Ethnographic  Lithuania  corresponds  to  the  following  adminis- 
trative divisions,  which  were  once  part  of  Russian  Czardom :  the 
governments  of  Vilna,  Kovna,  Suvalki,  Grodno,  a  part  of  Courland, 
and  the  governments  of  Minsk  and  Vitebsk;  also  the  provinces  in 
East  Prussia  known  as  Tilze  (Tilsit),  Klaipeda  (Memel),  Gumbine 
.(Gumbinen),  and  Karaliaucius  (Koenigsberg). 

The  city  of  Vilnius  (Vilna)    is  the  capital  of  Lithuania. 

The  area  which  ethnographical  Lithuania  occupies  is  approxi- 
mately 80,000  square  miles.^  The  population  is  about  9,000,000,  of 
which  7,000,000  are  Lithuanians  (3,500,000  Lithuanian  proper; 
1,500,000  Lithuanians  using  Slavic  dialect;  and  2,000,000  Letts), 
and  308,444  Poles.^  The  rest  of  the  population  consists  of  Jews, 
White  Russians,  Germans,  Mongols  and  others.'* 

ORIGIN 

Lithuanians  are  autochthonously  related  to  the  territory  above 
outlined.  There  is  no  trace  in  the  world's  history  of  any  other 
people  having  lived  in  these  regions.  This  is  confirmed  by  anthro- 
pological researches. 

The  Lithuanian  people,  although  situated  between  the  Slavs 
and  Teutons,  are  in  no  way  related  to  them.  The  Lithuanian  race 
forms  a  separate  branch,  springing  up  side  by  side  with  other  races 
having  an  Indo-European  origin.  The  people  are  divided  into  five 
stocks;   Lithuanians   proper,    Samogitians,   Letts,^   Jatvingiai   and 


'  From  the  Lithuanian  word  "baltas" — white. 

'  L,  Dominian,  "Frontiers  of  Languages  and  Nationalities  in  Eu- 
rope," 1917. 

""United  States  Immigration  Committee,  report  of  1910." 

*  Concerning  the  description  of  Lithuania,  the  customs  of  her  peo- 
ple, and  real  life  in  Lithuania,  consult  "The  Spectator,"  January-June, 
1885;  also  "Littell's  Living  Age,"  April  18,  1885. 

°  Describing  the  differences  between  the  Lithuanians  and  the  Letts, 
a  long  article  was  published  by  C.  H.  Wright,  LL.  D.,  in  "The  Edin- 
burgh Review,"  October,  1917.  See  also  "The  International  Studio," 
September,  1916,  regarding  the  Lettish  art.  "The  Arena,"  October, 
1908,  tells  of  Letts  in  the  United  States. 


Parusians  (Prussians).  At  present  only  the  first  three  stocke  exist. 
The  last  two  were  partly  assimilated  by  the  wave  of  Teutons  and 
Slavs. 

Prof.  Ripley  writes: 

"Entirely  distinct  from  the  Slavs  are  the  Letto-Lithuanian 
people,  which,  to  the  number  of  three  million  or  more,  occupies  the 
territory  between  the  White  Russians  and  the  Baltic  Sea,  extending 
down  into  Northern  Prussia.  Their  speech  in  the  comparative  isola- 
tion of  this  inhospitable  region — an  isolation  which  made  them  the 
last  people  in  Europe  to  accept  Christianity — is  the  most  archaic 
member  of  the  great  Aryan  or  inflectional  family.  Standing  between 
Slavic  and  Teutonic,  it  is  more  primitive  than  either.  Three  tribes 
or  peoples  of  them  co-exist  here ;  Letts,  Samogitians  and  Lithuanians 
proper. 

"The  head,  form  and  facial  proportions  of  the  purest  of  the 
Letto-Lithuanians,  it  will  be  observed,  approximate  quite  closely  to 
our  Anglo-Saxon  model. 

"If  our  original  Finns  are  proved  to  be  long-headed  blondes, 
oftentimes  very  tall;  if  the  Letto-Lithuanians,  contrasted  with  the 
Russian  Slavs,  betray  the  same  physical  tendencies;  if  just  across 
the  Baltic  Sea,  the  main  center  of  this  peculair  racial  combination 
is  surely  located  in  Scandinavia;  and,  finally,  if  in  every  direction 
from  the  Baltic  Sea,  whether  east  across  Russia,  or  south  into  Ger- 
many, these  traits  vanish  into  the  broader-headed,  darker-complex- 
ioned,  medium-statured,  and  stocky  Alpine  (Celtic?)  type,  how  can 
we  longer  deny  that  the  Finns,  Letto-Lithuanians  and  Teutons  are 
all  offshoots  from  the  same  trunk?  A  direct  physical  relationship 
between  the  three,  referring  them  all  to  the  so-called  Nordic  race,  is 
confirmed  by  the  very  latest  and  most  competent  authority  (Canon 
Taylor,  Kohn,  and  Melli?,  Bogdanof)."i 


'"The  Races  of  Europe."  by  Professor  W.  Z.  Ripley,  Ph.  D.,  lecturer 
of  anthropology  at  the  Columbia  University. 

"Zur  Anthropologie  der  Litauer,"  Isldorus  Brennsohn,  Derpat,  1883. 


UNGUAGE^ 

The  Lithuanian  people  speak  one  of  the  oldest  languages  of  the 
world.  This  tongue  strikingly  resembles  Sanscrit,  a  language  which 
in  no  way  resembles  that  of  their  neighbors,  the  Slavs  and  Germans. 
Although  it  was  surrounded  by  foreign  (Russian,  German  and 
Polish)  influences,  nevertheless,  it  has  preserved  its  purity  and 
beauty.  In  richness  the  Lithuanian  is  only  equalled  by  the  English 
language  (75,000  words,  according  to  Fortunatoff). 

Mr.  Lees  writes : 

"Harmonious,  richer  in  affectionate  and  cajoling  diminutives 
than  any  other  of  the  languages  of  Europe,  Lithuanian  possesses  the 
sonority  of  Latin  and  Greek ;  the  primitive  qualities  of  Sanscrit ;  and 
the  softness  and  musicality  of  Italian.  So  well  have  some  of  the 
primitive  characteristics  of  this  beautiful  language  been  preserved 
in  the  undisturbed  backwaters  of  Lithuania,  that,  if  it  were  possible 
for  the  Romans  and  the  Greeks  to  rise  from  their  graves,  they  would 
have  little  difficulty  in  understanding  whole  sentences  as  spoken  by 
the  Lithuanian  today,  whilst  these  could  just  as  easily  understand 
some  of  the  phrases  of  the  Sanscrit. 

"  'Vyrai,  traukite  jungan,'  uttered  the  Lithuanian  refugee  sadly, 
as  he  shouldered  his  pack  and  fled  before  the  German  invader 
(1915).  'Viri  trahite  jugum' — 'Men,  drag  the  yoke' — echoed  the 
Roman. 

" 'Dzievs  (Dievs)  dave  dautis,  duos  ir  duonos' — 'God  has  given 
us  teeth,  he  will  give  us  bread' — continued  the  refugee  resignedly, 
though  his  farm  was  in  flames  and  all  hope  of  return  to  his  ravaged 
fields  seemed  gone  forever.  And  from  ancient  Greece  came  the  en- 
couraging response :    'Dzeus  doe  odontas  dosei  sitos'."- 


'  "The  Academy,"  September  22,  1883.  "The  Rezzenberger's  Stud- 
ies in  Lithuanian,"  by  Jane  Lee.  Also  the  same  magazine,  October  28, 
1882.     "The  Lithuanian  Popular  Songs,"  by  John  T.  Naake. 

Pietro  G.  Goidanich,  "L'origine  e  le  forme  della  dittongazione  ro- 
manza."     Halle,  1907. 

R.  Gauthiot,  "Le  parler  de  Buividze;  essai  de  description  d'un 
dialecte  lituanien  orental."    Paris,  1903. 

F.  Kurshat,  "Grammatik  der  I^itauischen  Sprache.''    Halle,  1876. 

G.  F.  Nesselman,  "Worterbuch  der  litauischen  sprache,"  Koenigs- 
berg. 

A.  Schlieger,  "Handbuch  der  litauischen  sprache,"  Prag,  1856. 
W.    Gaigalat,    "Die    Wolfenbutteler    litauische    postillenhandschrift 
aus  dem  jahre  1573."    Tilsit,  1900. 

Ch.  Donalitius,  "Litauische  dichtunger." 
-  "The  Contemporary  Review,"  August,  1917. 

8 


The  Lithuanian  language  plays  a  very  important  role  in  the 
field  of  philology,  as  a  key  to  the  ancient  Sanscrit.  The  authorities 
quoted  below  speak  of  its  importance  in  this  respect. 

C.  H.  Wright,  referring  to  the  Lithuanian  and  Lettish  lang- 
uages, says:  "In  1837  Patt  demonstrated  that  the  Letto-Lithu- 
anic  languages  form  an  independent  group — the  Baltic  family — 
which  should  be  placed  next  to  the  Slavonic  and  Germanic  families 
in  regard  to  independence,  and  before  them  with  regard  to  antiquity. 

"Later  philologists,  without  exception,  liave  confirmed  this  view. 

A.  Meillet,  for  instance,  confirms  the  simple  truth  that  no  Slav  could 
understand  a  word  of  Lettish  or  Lithuanian.  Nevertheless,  certain 
politicians  have  not  hesitated  to  proclaim  the  Letts  and  the  Lithu- 
anians as  Slavs."^ 

Tn  Elise  Reclus  Geographic  Universelle,  it  is  stated : 
"Of  all  European  languages,  the  Lithuanian  has  the  greatest 
number  of  affectionate  and  diminutives — more  than  the  Spanish  or 
Italian,  even  the  Eussian — and  they  can  be  multiplied  almost  in- 
definitely by  adding  them  to  verbs  and  adverbs  as  well  as  to 
adjectives  and  nouns.  If  the  value  of  a  nation  in  the  total  sum  of 
Immanity  were  to  be  measured  by  the  beauty  of  its  language,  the 
Lithuanians  ought  to  have  the  first  place  among  the  nations  of 
Europe." 

Prof.  Meillet  of  the  College  de  France,  says :  "If  you  wisli  to 
hear  from  human  lips  some  echo  of  what  the  language  originally 
common  to  the  Indo-European  may  have  been,  go  and  listen  to 
Lithuanian  peasants  talking." 

DEVELOPMENT 

Compared  with  other  nations,  very  little  can  be  found  about 
Lithuania  in  foreign  literature.  Even  that  is  widely  scattered 
through  volumes  printed  in  different  languages.  Notwithstanding, 
archeological  discoveries  show  ancient  Lithuania  to  have  possessed 
a  high  state  of  culture.    It  is  stated  between  the  years  3000  and  1500 

B.  C,  agriculture  in  Lithuania  was  developed  to  a  high  degree. ^ 

According  to  S.  Mueller,  C.  Montelius  and  others,  during  the 
Iron  Period  (100-400  years  B.  C.)  Lithuanian  culture  was  astonish- 


■  "The  Edinburgh  Review,"  October,  1917. 
'"Prussia,"  1909.      Heft  22,  p.  502. 


ing.  Various  kinds  of  weapons  were  manufactured  from  metal; 
ornaments  from  amber  and  other  substances.  Already  the  spinning 
and  weaving  of  clothes  were  in  progress.  Tischler  and  other  archeo- 
logists  write  extensively  of  the  highly  developed  Lithuanian  culture 
from  the  beginning  of  the  Christ  period  to  the  coming  of  the  Crusa- 
ders into  Lithuania.^ 

POLITICAL  ORGANIZATION 

It  can  hardly  be  determined  whether,  up  to  the  tenth  century, 
there  was  a  political  organization  in  Lithuania  or  not.  There  prob- 
ably was  not.  However,  the  people  were  united  by  one  religion,  a 
common  language  and  the  same  customs.^ 

Constant  attacks  by  enemies  forced  them  to  form  closer  and 
closer  ties  among  themselves.  They  organized  in  groups  under  the 
leadership  of  their  own  Eykiai  (commanders).  Later  on,  several  of 
these  groups  united  and  chose  one  Kunigaikstis  (Prince).  One  of 
these  princes,  whose  name  appears  in  history,  was  Rimgaudas.  Still 
later  all  these  groups  were  united  under  one  leader,  forming  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Lithuania. 

Mr.  Bain  says: 

"Lithuanians  first  emerged  into  the  light  of  history  at  the  time 
of  the  settlement  of  the  Teutonic  Order  in  the  North.  Rumors  of 
the  war  of  extermination,  waged  by  the  Knights  against  their  near 
kinsfolk,  the  Prussians,  first  evoked  the  Lithuanians  to  a  sense  of 
their  danger.  They  immediately  abandoned  their  loose  communal 
system  for  a  monarchical  form  of  government,  and  under  a  series  of 
exceptionally  capable  Princes,  notably,  Mindovg  (1240-1263),  and 
Gedymin  (1316-1341),  began  an  astonishing  career  of  conquest, 
mainly  at  the  expense  of  Russia,  so  that  at  the  death  of  Gedymin,  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Lithuania  extended  from  Courland  to  the  Carpath- 
ians, and  from  the  Bug  to  the  Desna,  including  the  old  Russian 
principalities  of  Plock,  Kiev  and  Chernigov.  Indeed,  at  one  time,  it 
seemed  as  if  this  new,  non-Slavonic  State  was  about  to  eclipse  and 
absorb  all  the  Slavonic  states  to  the  East  and  West.^ 


^A.  Rambaud,  "Histoire  de  la  Russie  depuis  origines  jusqu'a  nos 
jours."    Paris,  1914. 

^Ostpreusens,  p.  7;  and  "Prussia"  1901.     Heft  21,  p.  66. 
'R.  N.  Bain,  "Slavonic  Europe." 

10 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  LITHUANIA 

Lithuania  was  the  last  nation  of  Europe  to  embrace  Christi- 
anity. Towards  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  an  attempt  was 
made  to  force  upon  her  the  Christian  belief  by  tlie  sword  and  vio- 
lence. At  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  two  German 
military  orders,  the  Order  of  the  Teutonic  Knights  of  the  Cross  and 
the  Order  of  the  Sword  Bearers,  had  settled  near  the  frontiers  of 
Lithuania.  The  former  at  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula,  and  the  latter 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Dvina.  Under  pretext  of  converting  Lithuania 
to  Christianity,  they  endeavered  to  subjugate  the  country.  The 
Lithuanians  fought  for  two  centuries  to  defend  their  liberty  and 
their  homes. 

Not  being  consolidated  at  that  time  by  a  complete  union  of  all 
their  branches  under  a  single  government,  the  Lithuanian  people 
had  great  difficulty  in  resisting  the  crusades  undertaken  against 
them.  The  knights  of  all  Europe  rushed  into  Prussia  in  order  to 
fight  the  heathen  Lithuanians  for  their  souls'  salvation.  Not  only 
the  knights,  but  also  the  kings  with  their  entire  armies,  descended 
upon  this  peaceful  people.  It  will  suffice  to  name  the  case  of  Otto- 
kar,  King  of  Bohemia,  who,  in  1254-1255  came  to  Prussia  with  an 
army  of  60,000  men  to  fight  the  heathens  there,  together  with  the 
Teutonic  Knights  of  the  Cross.  It  was  not  a  war  to  convert  the 
people  to  Christianity,  but  a  war  of  conquest  and  of  extermination. 

This  war  of  plunder  and  extermination,  undertaken  in  the  name 
of  Christ  by  the  Knights  of  the  Cross,  inspired  in  the  Lithuanians 
a  feeling  of  hatred,  not  only  towards  the  Teutonic  Knights,  but  also 
towards  the  Christian  faith. 

The  ancient  Lithuanians  naturally  identified  Christianity  with 
bondage.  It  is,  therefore,  not  astonishing  that  they  should  liave 
refused,  until  the  thirteenth  century,  to  accept  Christianity  from  the 
hands  of  their  worst  enemies  who  sought  to  subdue  them. 

The  Dublin  University  Magazine.  November,  1869,  says: 

''The  Knights  felt  that  if  Lithuania  was  Christian,  there  would 
be  no  more  'pagan  hordes'  for  them  to  make  head  against,  and  so 
they  were  not  at  all  anxious  that  the  pure  faith  should  make  way 
across  the  Niemen.  They  were  always  ready,  however,  to  foment 
disorders  in  the  country. 

"The  Teutonic  Knights  were  slowly  preparing  to  annex  Lithu- 


11 


ania ;  they  did  not  hurry  themselves,  for  they  liked  to  keep,  as  long 
as  possible,  a  miniature  crusading  ground,  where  all  the  enthusiasts 
of  Europe  might  carry  on  the  war  against  the  infidels,  with  a  mini- 
mum of  danger  and  a  maximum  of  profit."^ 

THE  KINGDOM  OF  LITHUANIA 

Prince  Mindaugis  (Mindovg),  seeing  that  the  constant  attacks 
on  the  Lithuanians  under  the  pretext  of  Christianity  were  threaten- 
ing her  freedom,  decided  to  place  Lithuania  on  equal  basis  with  other 
civilized  European  States.  He  was  the  first  to  unite  Lithuania  into 
one  body  politic,  thereby  forming  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Lithuania. 

In  1250,  he  invited  Andrews,  the  Grand  Master  of  the  Sword 
Bearers  of  Riga,  to  his  palace  in  Varuta,  and  after  a  conference  with 
him,  Mindaugis  decided  to  accept  the  Christian  faith.  A  year  later, 
he,  his  wife  Martha,  his  two  sons  Rukelis  and  Eepeikis  and  the  entire 
court  were  baptized,  their  example  being  followed  by  the  princes  and 
other  Lithuanian  nobility. 

After  the  baptism,  Mindaugis  sent  a  delegation  to  the  Pope, 
Innocentius  IV,  expressing  his  filial  devotion  to  the  Holy  See  and 
asking  the  Pope  to  take  him  under  his  paternal  care  as  a  separate 
son  of  the  Church,  meaning  that  Christian  Lithuania  should  not  be 
part  of  the  Polish  or  Teutonic  bishopric,  but  that  such  bishopric 
should  be  established  in  Lithuania.  The  delegation  was  headed  by 
Pornius,  one  of  the  brilliant  military  leaders.  The  delegation  was 
received  by  the  Pope  at  the  city  of  Mediolano. 

Together  with  the  Lithuanian  delegation,  there  were  also  the 
delegates  of  Grand  Master  Andrews,  asking  the  Pope  for  permission 
to  crown  Mindaugis  King  of  Lithuania.  The  delegates  were  received 
with  open  arms  and  their  requests  granted. 

The  same  day,  July  17,  1251,  the  Pope  Innocentius  issued  a 
paper  to  Henrick,  Bishop  of  Cholm,  commanding  him  to  officiate  at 
the  coronation  of  Mindaugis  as  King  of  Lithuania. 

Orders  were  also  issued  to  other  bishops  that  they  should  not 
interfere  with  Lithuania  and  Mindaugis  as  a  separate  son  of  the 
Church ;  no  doubt  the  Pope  had  in  mind  Albert,  Arch-bishop  of  Riga, 
who  was  opposing  the  creation  of  a  bishopric  in  Lithuania.  The 
coronation  was  performed  by  the  Bishop  Henrick  in  July,  1253.  The 


^F.  Boldt,  "Der  Deutsche  orden  und  Litauen." 

12 


ceremonies  were  witnessed  by  many  foreign  and  Lithuanian  digni- 
taries.   Christian,  the  future  bishop  of  Lithuania,  was  also  present. 

Such  a  radical  change  in  the  religious  faith  of  the  rulers  of 
Lithuania  brouglit  some  disorders  in  the  country,  because  the  people 
at  first  were  unable  to  understand  the  causes  leading  to  the  changes. 
But  the  tact  and  firmness  of  the  newly  crowned  King  Mindaugis 
restored  harmony  and  order  in  Lithuania.  His  services  to  the  coun- 
try were  praised  for  centuries,  particularly  since  he  was  the  first  to 
inculcate  the  idea  of  maintaining  one  political  body  in  Lithuania. 

While  Mindaugis  was  preparing  to  strike  the  Teutonic  Order 
a  hard  blow  (1263),  he  was  assassinated  by  enemy  agents. 

PERIOD  OF  THE  STRENGTH  OF  LITHUANIA 

After  the  death  of  Mindaugis,  although  the  kingdom  of  Lithu- 
ania was  again  divided  by  the  princes,  the  idea  of  unity  still  main- 
tained, and  as  the  Teutonic  pressure  increased,  Lithuania  was  re- 
united by  Vitenis,  and  subsequently  taken  over  by  Gedeminas  (Gedy- 
min),  the  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania  (1316-1341). 

In  spite  of  the  official  conversion  of  Lithuania  to  Christianity, 
the  Teutonic  KJnights  did  not  cease  to  devastate  the  country,  and 
hence,  after  the  death  of  Mindaugis,  paganism  regained  the  upper 
hand  in  Lithuania.  The  successors  of  Mindaugis  were  able  not  only 
to  resist  the  advance  of  the  Teutonic  Knights  in  the  East,  but  they 
also  conquered  vast  Slavo-Euthenian  regions.  For  instance,  King 
Gedeminas  conquered  Yolhynia  and  Kiev,  while  fighting  in  the  West 
against  the  Germans. 

King  Gedeminas  laid  the  foundation  of  the  power  of  the  Lithu- 
anian state,  not  only  through  conquest,  but  also  through  the  internal 
organization  of  occupied  territories.  He  was  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able Lithuanian  sovereigns.  His  successors  continued  his  policy  of 
expansion  towards  the  East,  and  his  defensive  policy  towards  the 
Teutonic  Knights  in  the  West.  Two  of  his  sons,  Algirdas  and 
Keistutis  (1345-1377),  inflicted  a  defeat  on  the  Teutonic  Knights 
at  Rudava  (East  Prussia),  and  thus  forced  them  to  keep  away  from 
the  frontiers  of  Lithuania.  At  the  same  time  the  Lithuanian  princes 
drove  back  the  Tartars  as  far  as  Crimea  after  the  battle  of  the  Blue 
Waters.  During  this  epoch  Lithuania  extended  from  the  Baltic  Sea 
to  the  Black  Sea. 


13 


The  Contemporary  Review,  of  August,  1917,  says: 

"The  great  historical  past  of  the  Lithuanians  appeals  very 
strongly  to  both  historian  and  politician.  But  as  regards  their 
political  history,  which  is  complicated  in  the  extreme,  I  need  not 
do  much  more  than  point  out  how  great  a  service  they  rendered 
Europe  when,  on  the  one  hand,  they  delivered  the  greater  part  of 
Russia  from  the  yoke  of  the  Mongols,  whilst,  on  the  other,  they 
raised  Poland  to  the  rank  of  a  Great  Power  and  stemmed  the  Drang 
nach  Osten  of  the  Teutonic  Knights." 

At  the  time  of  Gedeminas,  Lithuania  was  at  the  height  of  her 
greatness.  Then  it  was  that  great  services  were  rendered  to  Western 
Europe  through  checking  the  wave  of  Tartar  hordes  which  most  cer- 
tainly would  have  destroyed  European  civilization  while  in  its  very 
cradle. 

The  death  of  Gedeminas  brought  about  the  division  of  Lithu- 
ania, but,  saj'^s  Phillips  ("Poland"),  "in  1345,  it  was  reunited  by 
agreement  among  his  sons.  Olgierd,  who  had  been  baptized  into  the 
Orthodox  faith,  was  recognized  as  Grand  Prince  of  Lithuania  and 
reigned  till  his  death,  from  his  capital  at  Vilna,  over  an  empire 
which  embraced  all  the  present  western  provinces  of  Russia." 

While  Algirdas  (Olgierd)  ruled  Lithuania  (1345-1377),  his 
brother,  Keistutis,  was  ruler  of  Zemaitija  (Samogitia).  They  were 
acting  in  unison,  and  successfully  carried  on  the  wars  against  the 
Tartars,  Poles,  Teutonic  Order  and  the  Moscovites. 

Although  Lithuania  was  forced  to  wage  wars  with  Christian 
nations,  it  was  only  because  there  were  people  in  certain  parts  of  the 
country  who  had  not  as  yet  adopted  the  Christian  faith,  and,  under 
the  pretext  of  converting  them,  the  neighboring  nations  frequently 
attempted  to  cross  the  border,  thereby  challenging  the  Lithuanian 
people  to  fight  for  their  liberty. 

Nevertheless,  "Lithuania  was  not  wholly  shut  out  from  the 
Brotherhood  of  Nations;  its  Princes  began  to  marry  Christian  wives, 
and  they  allowed  them  free  exercise  of  their  religion,  though  they 
vigorously  checked  the  proselytizing  of  the  Franciscans;  Olgierd 
(Algirdas)  and  Keystutt  (Keistutis),  father  and  uncle  of  the 
Jagello  (Jagela),  sent  embassies  as  far  as  the  Pope  at  Avignon,  and 
even  over  to  England ;  and  their  policy  must  have  been  sagacious  or 
they  would  not  have  been  able  to  resist  the  Teutonic  Knights,  to  roll 


14 


back  the  tide  of  Tartar  invasion,  and  to  push  their  conquests  as  far 
south  as  Kiev. 

"Olgierd  aimed  at  conquering  the  Crimea,  and  getting  an  outlet 
to  the  Black  Sea.  Once,  he  almost  took  Moscow,  only  sparing  it  in 
deference  to  the  prayers  of  the  Grand  Duke  Demetrius.  When  he 
had  decided  on  drawing  off  his  army,  he  rode  up  to  the  city,  and, 
breaking  his  lance  against  the  gate,  he  said :  'Demetrius  Ivanovitch, 
never  forget  that  the  Lithuanian  spear  has  struck  the  gate  of 
Moscow.' 

"Keystutt,  Olgierd's  brother,  was  a  prince  in  an  age  when,  accord- 
ing to  the  German  Minnesingers,  the  Christian  Knights  were  losing 
all  title  to  the  name,  yea,  were  spoiling  the  trade  of  the  Jew  usurers. 
Often  taken  prisoner  by  the  Teutonic  Knights,  he  usually  owed  his 
escape  to  the  admiration  which  he  inspired  in  his  gaolers.  Once, 
after  eight  months'  captivity  he  got  away  in  the  dress  of  the  order, 
the  well  known  white  cloak  with  black  cross,  and  on  the  horse  of  the 
Grand  Master  himself;  but  he  took  care  to  send  back  the  horse  as 
soon  as  he  crossed  the  frontier.  He  was  as  magnanimous  in  victory, 
as  he  was  intrepid  in  defeat.  Here  is  an  instance  of  this  crude 
heathen's  conduct : 

"Johannisburg  has  just  been  taken  by  a  night  attack ;  the  'white 
cloaks'  have  surrendered;  they  are  packed  in  the  courtyard  of  the 
castle  while  round  them  streams  a  crowd  of  people  clad  in  sheep- 
skins, brandishing  their  bows  and  arrows,  and  calling  for  vengeance 
and  for  a  wholesale  sacrifice  to  Znicz.^  Although  tlie  commander 
of  the  Knights  steps  forward,  'Son  of  Gedimin,'  he  says,  'I  am  ready 
to  die,  but  spare  my  comrades!'  'Choose  the  four  of  them,  whom 
you  love  best,  and  ride  freely  off ;  as  for  the  rest,  they  shall  all  have 
their  lives ;  Keystutt  hath  said  it.' 

"He  always  duly  warned  the  Grand  Master  before  he  made  any 
inroad  on  the  Ivnights;  and  (adds  the  chronicler),  'when  he  said  he 
was  coming,  he  always  came.'  "^ 

POLISH  INTRIGUE 

After  the  death  of  Algirdas,  his  son  Jagela  (Jagello)  became 
the  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania. 

The  Poles  seeing  Lithuania  powerful  and  flourishing,  were 

'Zinj'cia,  the  sanctuary  of  the  highest  God,  Perkunas-thunder. 
^"Dublin  University  Magazine,"  November,  1869. 

15 


anxious  to  gain  her  alliance  against  the  Teutonic  Order,  "who  were 
fast  losing  any  religious  character  they  might  have  possessed  and 
continued  a  fighting  force  as  efficient  as  it  was  cruel."  They  offered 
Jagela  the  crown  of  Poland  and  the  hand  of  Jadwiga,  then  the  young 
queen  of  Poland. 

In  1386,  Jagela  married  Jadwiga  and  became  King  of  Poland. 
The  intention  of  the  Polish  nobility  was  clear.  By  forcing  their 
young  queen  into  a  matrimonial  bond  with  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Lithuania,  they  expected  that  these  two  states  would  become  united. 
Jagela  persuaded  by  Poles,  through  Jadwiga,  tried  to  form  a  closer 
tie  between  Poland  and  Lithuania,  by  pretending  to  be  the  ruler  of 
both  states  while  sitting  in  Cracow,  the  Polish  capital. 

The  actions  of  Jagela  insulted  the  people  of  Lithuania  who  were 
bitterly  opposed  to  any  political  relations  with  Poland.  At  the  head 
of  the  dissatisfied  population  of  Lithuania  was  Vytautas  (Vytovt), 
cousin  of  Jagela.  Jagela  immediately  sent  a  Polish  army  to  sup- 
press the  uprisings  in  Lithuania.  Soon  he  found  that  he  was  power- 
less against  the  Lithuanians,  and  could  no  longer  occupy  two  thrones. 
He  then  called  the  Diet  of  Ostrove  (1392),  where  he  was  compelled 
to  transfer  the  throne  of  Lithuania  to  Vytautas.  At  this  Diet,  the 
Lithuanian  Grand  Duke  was  declared  to  be  the  equal  in  all  respects 
to  the  Polish  King.  Both  states  promised  to  assist  each  other  in  case 
of  war  with  the  Teutonic  Order,  or  Tartars. 

DRASTIC  STEPS  ARE  TAKEN 

The  Poles,  feeling  the  growing  strength  of  Lithuania,  com- 
pelled Jadwiga  to  remind  Vytautas  of  the  Krevo  "union"  of  1385, 
in  which  Jagela  promised  to  join  Lithuania  with  Poland,  and  obli- 
gated Lithuania  to  pay  assessments  to  Poland.  This  was  too  much 
of  an  insult  to  Vytautas.  He  at  once  called  together  all  the  princes 
and  nobility  of  Lithuania  and  Gudia  (White  Eussia),  presented  the 
letter  from  Jadwiga,  and,  in  irony,  asked  them  if  they  were  willing 
to  comply  with  Jadwiga's  request.  As  was  to  be  expected,  there  was 
only  one  answer :  "Our  forefathers  never  paid  assessments  to  Poles, 
neither  will  we  pay."  This  was  in  harmony  with  the  views  of 
Vytautas. 

The  ambition  of  Vytautas  was  to  make  the  title  of  Lithuania 
equal  to  that  of  Poland.     Foreseeing  serious  objections  from  the 

16 


Polish  side,  he  proceeded  at  once  with  preparations  for  war  with 
Poland.  On  November  2nd,  1398,  all  the  nobility  were  summoned 
to  a  conference.  The  Grand  Master  of  the  Crusaders  was  also  in- 
vited to  attend.  He  promised  Vytautas  his  assistance  against  the 
Poles.  At  this  conference,  the  Lithuanian  and  Gudian  nobility  pres- 
ent proclaimed  Vytautas  tlie  King  of  Lithuania.  This  clearly  indi- 
cates the  spirit  which  predominated  among  the  people  of  Lithuania, 
and  what  feelings  they  had  towards  Poland. 

VYTAUTAS  THE  GREAT 

War  with  Poland  was  prevented  by  the  conflict  of  1399  with  the 
Tartars,  and  also  by  the  Diet  of  Vilnius  (Vilna),  1401.  During  the 
following  nine  years,  Vytautas  gained  the  upper  hand  over  Tartars, 
Smolensk,  Pskov,  Novgorod  and  Moscovites.  All  these  were  bound 
to  obey  him. 

During  the  reign  of  Vytautas,  Lithuania  attained  the  summit 
of  her  power.  Her  borders  were  enlarged  to  the  north  as  far  as 
Novgorod,  to  the  east  as  far  as  Moscow  and  the  Don.  To  the  south- 
west she  had  as  frontiers  the  Eiver  Dniester  and  the  Black  Sea. 

Vytautas  the  Great  rendered  immense  service  to  Western 
Europe  by  checking  the  invasion  of  the  Tartars  and  other  barbaric 
people.  The  Tartars  of  the  Crimea  were  subdued  by  him  to  such 
an  extent  that  they  considered  him  as  their  suzerain.  It  was  Vytau- 
tas who  elected  their  Khans.  This  prince  was  as  valiant  a  warrior 
as  lie  was  a  clever  diplomat.  His  genius  may  be  compared  with  that 
of  Charlemagne  and  Washington. 

As  to  the  characteristics  of  Vytautas  as  a  ruler,  the  following 
quotation  may  throw  a  little  light  on  the  subject : 

"Certain  Poles  were  present  one  day  at  an  execution ;  two 
criminals  were  set  to  hang  themselves,  and  one  urged  the  other  on 
with  the  words,  *Let  us  make  haste,  the  Prince  is  growing  im- 
patient.' "1 

The  battle  of  Tennenberg,  or  Grunwald,  in  1410,^.where  the 
Teutonic  Order  received  a  mortal  blow,  marks  an  epoch  in  the 
world's  history.    This  historic  conflict  was  won  by  Vytautas,  who 


'"Dublin  University  Magazine,"  1869.  This  happened  while  Vytau- 
tas was  preparing  his  army  to  the  battle.  Two  of  his  soldiers  made 
some  utterance  against  God,  and  were  condemned  to  die. 


17 


prepared  not  only  his  own  Lithuanian  troops,  but  the  Polish  armies 
under  the  leadership  of  Jagela  as  well. 

Vytautas  increased  his  ranks  with  a  large  number  of  Bohemian 
mercenaries.  He  was  the  active  commander  on  the  battlefield.  As 
a  consequence  of  this  glorious  victory,  through  Vytautas'  strateg}^ 
the  name  of  Lithuania  and  its  ruler  were  praised  throughout  the 
whole  of  civilized  Europe.  It  was  then  that  Emperor  Sigismund 
offered  a  king's  crown  to  Vytautas.  Since  that  time  he  has  been 
called  Vytautas  the  Great.^ 

ALLIANCE  WITH  POLAND 

Polish  intrigues,  due  to  jealousy  of  the  rising  glory  of  Lithu- 
ania, resulted  in  the  Gardelis  (Horodlo)  Diet  of  1413,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  forming  a  union  between  these  two  states.  Although  it  was 
formed  as  an  alliance  for  mutual  protection,  nevertheless  the  Poles, 
fearing  that  Vytautas  might  refuse  even  such  a  treaty,  agreed  to 
declare  the  Lithuanian  Grand  Duke  equal  in  all  respects  to  the 
Polish  King.2  It  was  also  declared  that  after  the  death  of  either 
ruler,  a  successor  would  be  chosen  only  after  an  agreement  of  both 
States. 

Vytautas  the  Great  did  not  leave  direct  heirs  to  the  throne. 
Partisans  of  Jagela  profited  by  this  fact  and  endeavored  to  restore 
the  throne  of  Lithuania  to  the  dynasty  of  the  Jagellons.  The  Poles 
tried  to  take  advantage  of  this  circumstance  to  draw  the  country 
little  by  little  under  their  influence.  The  remaining  heathens  of 
Lithuania  having  been  converted  to  Christianity,  and  other  influ- 
ences, under  the  cover  of  religion,  penetrated  into  Lithuania  at  the 
same  time.  The  Poles  tried  to  propagate  their  language,  their  cus- 
toms and  their  institutions  in  Lithuania.  The  laymen,  following 
the  clergy,  entered  the  country  in  great  numbers.  The  Jagellons 
and  their  partisans  attempted  to  establish  a  political  union  between 
Poland  and  Lithuania,  stronger  than  the  doubtful  alliance. 


'"Dublin  University  Magazine,"  November,  1869.  Although  the  long 
article  published  in  this  magazine  contains  historical  facts  flavoured 
with  Polish  Chauvinism,  nevertheless,  it  is  worth  reading,  as  it  gives 
many  interesting  details  concerning  the  struggles  betv/een  the  Lithuani- 
ans, Teutonic  Knights  and  the  Poles. 

'Bain,  "Slavonic  Europe." 

"States  which  are  sovereign  are  necessarily  equal  in  rights,  since 
the  quality  of  full  sovereignty  has  no  degrees,  and  the  state,  as  such, 
has  certain  rights  from  its  very  existence." — T.  D.  Woolsey,  "Interna- 
tional Law,"  p.  36. 

18 


The  Lithuanians  did  not  cease  to  oppose  the  reconciliation  with 
Poland,  for  the  Lithuanian  patriots  realized  that  this  could  not  take 
place  except  to  the  detriment  of  Lithuania.  Several  attempts  on  the 
side  of  the  Poles  to  form  a  political  union  with  Lithuania  proved 
futile. 

Although  it  was  declared  that  the  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania  was 
the  equal  of  the  King  of  Poland,  still  the  title  at  that  time  made 
much  difference.  So  Vytautas  decided  to  equalize  the  title  as  well. 
The  Emperor  Sigismund  sent  the  crown  to  Vytautas,  but  Polish 
thieves  attacked  the  envoys  and  stole  it.^ 

ANNULMENT  OF  THE  UNION 

After  the  death  of  Vytautas  (1430),  the  agreement  of  Gardelis 
(1413)  was  annulled  by  the  Lithuanians.  They  elected  Svidrigaila 
to  the  throne  of  Lithuania  witliout  the  consent  of  the  Poles,  and  in 
spite  of  Polish  opposition. 

In  1432,  Sigismund  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Lithuania  and 
tried  to  renew  the  earlier  agreement  with  the  Poles.  But  after  his 
death,  tlie  Lithuanians  again  nullified  all  the  existing  agreements, 
by  electing  Casimir  (1440)  as  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania.  Several 
years  later,  the  Poles  invited  Casimir  to  the  throne  of  Poland,  but 
he  was  "by  no  means  disposed  to  exchange  an  absolute  sway  in  his 
beloved  Grand  Duchy,  for  a  relatively  limited  authorit}^  in  a  king- 
dom which  he  had  never  visited.  Only  after  exasperating  negotia- 
tions, only  after  the  Poles  had  threatened  him  with  a  rival  in  Boles- 
laus.  Prince  of  Mosovia,  would  Casimir  give  way.  Then  he  stipu- 
lated that  the  disputed  border  province  of  Volhynia  and  Podolia 
should  previously  be  adjusted."*  Even  after  his  coronation  at  Cra- 
cow (June,  1447),  he  continued  to  spend  the  greater  part  of  his 
time  in  Lithuania.  For  the  next  seven  years  he  quietly  but  stead- 
fastly resisted  all  the  petitions  of  the  Polish  nobility  for  a  confirma- 
tion of  their  ancient  privileges,  till  they  tlireatened  to  form  a 
confederation  against  him.     Then  he  yielded,^  but  in  such  general 


'It  might  be  mentioned  here,  that,  just  before  the  present  great 
European  war,  it  was  discovered  that  Vytautas  was  buried  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Vilnius  with  his  crown.  After  this  discovery  the  crown 
shortly  disappeared  from  the  coffin.  Probably,  Polish  hands  are  re- 
sponsible for  its  removal. 

'Treaty  of  Brest  Litovsk,  March  23,  1446. 

'Diet  of  Piotrkow,  1453. 

19 


terms  as  to  make  it  of  little  or  no  value.  Casimir's  firmness  had 
important  political  consequences.  The  nobility  were  impressed  by 
his  resolution,  but  they  mistrusted  him  ever  afterward  as  a  pro- 
Lithuanian,  and  henceforth  made  it  a  point  of  honor  to  give  him 
nothing  gratis."^ 

All  the  Lithuanian  and  Gudian  nobility  gathered  at  the  Diet 
of  Vilnius,  January,  1446,  and  emphatically  opposed  Casimir's 
acceptance  of  the  Polish  crown,  and  then  only  permitted  him  to 
become  King  of  Poland  when  it  was  promised  that  the  provinces  of 
Volhynia  and  Podolia  would  be  returned  to  Lithuania,  and  that 
after  the  death  of  Casimir,  the  Lithuanians  should  choose  their 
ruler  without  the  intervention  of  Poles.  This  shows  that  if  there 
had  ever  been  a  union  up  to  this  time,  it  was  then  entirely  dissolved. 

After  the  death  of  Casimir  (1492),  "the  Lithuanians,  in  direct 
violation  of  the  treaty  of  Horodlo,  a  month  earlier,  elected  John 
Albert's  younger  brother,  Alexander,  their  Grand  Duke.'"' 

POLES  ELECT  LITHUANIAN  RULERS  FOR 
POLAND'S  THRONE 

Alexander's  reign  was  marked  by  wars  with  Moscovites,  Tartars 
and  the  Teutonic  Order.  He  was  elected  as  King  of  Poland,  October 
4,  1501;  died,  1506. 

Ten  days  after  the  obsequies  of  Alexander,  his  younger  brother, 
Sigismund,  was  unanimously  elected  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania.  On 
January  24,  1507,  he  was  crowned  at  Cracow,  King  of  Poland. 

To  maintain  the  tie  with  Lithuania,  the  Polish  politicians  en- 
deavored to  prevent  having  a  separate  ruler  for  both  states  and  seized 
every  opportunity  to  gain  this  end.  After  the  death  of  their  Ejng, 
they  tried  to  declare  the  Lithuanian  Grand  Duke  as  their  King,  and 
thus  keep  Lithuania  without  her  own  separate  ruler. 

Sigismund  seeing  that  the  Lithuanians  were  not  satisfied  and 
were  striving  for  their  own  separate  ruler,  although  his  sympathies 
were  with  them,  through  fear  of  Polish  jealousy,  he  conducted  secret 
negotiations  with  the  Lithuanians,  and  in  1529,  at  the  Diet  of  Vilnius, 
offered  his  son  Sigismund  Augustus  for  the  throne  of  Lithuania. 
The  Lithuanians  accepted  his  offer  and  triumphantly  declared  Sigis- 


^Slavonic  Europe,  p.  15. 
'Slavonic  Europe,  Bain,  p.  41. 


20 


mund  Augustus  as  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania,  and  in  1544  he  became 
de  facto  ruler  of  Lithuania. 

The  Poles  being  abnormally  jealous  of  Lithuanian  liberty,  and 
at  the  same  time  anxious  to  maintain  relations,  however  slight,  with 
Lithuania,  after  the  death  of  their  king,  again  elected  a  Lithuanian 
Grand  Duke  for  their  ruler  (1548), 

The  I'oles  being  placed  in  fear  by  constant  Turkish  attacks, 
forced  their  king  to  bind  Lithuania  closer  to  Poland ;  thus  to  have 
the  Lithuanian  power  arrayed  against  the  Turks.  In  1551,  Sigis- 
mund  II  sent  the  Polish  chancellor  to  the  Lithuanian  Diet  at 
Vilnius,  to  remind  the  Lithuanians  of  former  "unions,"  and  to  invite 
them  to  the  formation  of  a  new  and  a  closer  one.  The  Lithuanians 
emphatically  refused  to  consider  any  such  invitation  and  asked  the 
chancellor  to  tell  the  king  that  Lithuania  wished  to  maintain  her 
independence,  and  that  he  should  not  favor  Polish  chauvinistic  ideas. 
At  the  same  time  the  Lithuanians  promised  Poland  their  financial 
and  military  assistance  against  the  Turks. 

POLAND'S  DESPERATE  DESIRE  FOR  UNION 

During  the  following  years  many  conferences  and  Diets  were 
called  in  both  States.  This  was  a  result  of  Polish  intrigues  and 
desperate  and  persistent  pressure  on  their  King,  who  was  also  Grand 
Duke  of  Lithuania,  to  form  a  union  with  Lithuania.  "In  Poland 
itself,  men  were  of  one  mind  as  to  the  desirability  of  a  complete  and 
absolute  union ;  but  the  Lithuanian  magnates  obstinately  opposed  it. 
Only  the  fear  of  the  Moscovite  with  whom  they  were  always  more  or 
less  at  war,  induced  the  Lithuanians  to  entertain  the  proposal  at  all. 
The  project  of  a  closer  union  was  first  debated  at  the  Diet  of  War- 
saw (November,  1563;  June,  1564),  to  which  the  Lithuanians  sent 
delegates.  The  discussions  were  warm  on  both  sides  and  ultimately 
came  to  nothing;  but  the  King  judiciously  prepared  the  way  for 
future  negotiations  by  voluntarily  relinquishing  his  hereditary  title 
to  the  throne  of  Lithuania."^ 

The  Poles  particularly  feared  that  Sigismund  Augustus  would 
leave  no  heirs  to  the  throne,  thereby  extinguishing  the  Jagellon 
dynasty,  and  Lithuania,  no  more  linked  with  Poland  through  the 
person  of  the  same  sovereign,  might  become  ipso  facto  separated 


'Bain,  "Slavonic  Europe." 

21 


forever  from  Poland.  It  was  understood  by  the  Poles  that,  if  Poland 
be  left  alone,  she  would  become  a  secondary  state,  as  she  had  been 
previous  to  her  dynastic  union  with  Lithuania.  The  Poles,  desirous 
of  avoiding  at  any  price  the  decrease  of  their  country,  made  all  pos- 
sible efforts  to  transform  the  dynastic  union  into  a  political  one 
before  the  death  of  the  last  Jagellon.  To  this  end  they  convoked 
several  diets  to  impose  the  union  under  a  new  form.  All  the  at- 
tempts of  the  Poles  failed,  thanks  to  the  opposition  of  the  Lithu- 
anians, who  wished  nothing  more  than  to  dissipate  once  and  for  all 
any  idea  of  a  union  with  Poland.  At  the  head  of  Lithuanian  opposi- 
tion was  Prince  Mikolas  Radvila  Juodasis  (Micholas  Eadzivill,  the 
Black),  the  brother-in-law  of  King  Sigismund  Augustus,  whose 
ability  frustrated  all  the  attempts  of  the  Poles.  But  after  his  death 
in  1565,  the  Lithuanian  opposition  did  not  find  an  equally  obstinate 
leader  to  face  the  Polish  attempts. 

Negotiations  were  reopened  on  January  10,  1569,  at  the  Lublin 
conference.  A  Lithuanian  memorial  was  presented  by  the  Vice- 
Treasurer,  Narusevicius  (Narusevicz),  in  which  the  Lithuanians 
positively  refused  to  go  beyond  a  personal  union.  On  the  rejection 
of  their  memorial,  the  Lithuanian  representatives,  indignant  at  the 
illegal  proceedings  of  the  King  and  his  Polish  delegates,  withdrew 
from  further  participation  in  the  conference. 

The  Polish  delegates,  losing  hope  of  absorbing  all  Lithuania  at 
one  time,  decided  to  take  it  in  portions.  Concentrating  all  their 
pressure  on  Sigismund,  they  now  requested  him  to  annex  the  richest 
southern  Lithuanian  provinces  of  Volhynia,  Podolia  and  Ukraine 
to  Poland.  The  King,  disregarding  the  fact  that  in  the  year  pre- 
vious to  this  conference  he  had  relinquished  his  title  to  the  throne  of 
Lithuania,  now  took  a  decisive  step.  Assuming  the  role  of  ruler  of 
Lithuania,  and  in  spite  of  protests  of  Ostefijus  Volavicius,  Prince 
Cartoriskis,  Prince  Ostrovskis  and  Prince  Visnevskis,  the  representa- 
tives of  Podolia  and  Volhynia,  he  annexed  these  provinces  to  Po- 
land. The  Podolian  representatives,  however,  refused  to  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Polish  King,  regardless  of  Polish  threats  to 
confiscate  their  property. 

LITHUANIA'S  LAST  MEANS  TO  PRESERVE  INDEPENDENCE 

The  Lithuanian  delegates  returning  home  decided  to  take  de- 
cisive steps;  resorting,  if  need  be,  to  the  sword  against  the  Poles. 
But  soon,  to  their  pain,  they  learned  that  the  Polish  anarchical  seed 

22 


Bown  in  Lithuania  had  begun  to  take  root.  It  was  impossible  to 
have  the  army  ready  in  a  short  time.  To  save  the  name  of  Lithu- 
ania from  disgrace  the  representatives,  as  a  last  resort,  returned  to 
the  conference  and  violently  protested  against  the  annexation  of  any 
Lithuanian  provinces  to  Poland. 

Then  the  King  of  Poland  called  all  the  militia  to  arms  (pos- 
polita  ruszenia),  to  enforce  the  union.  The  Lithuanian  representa- 
tives, to  prevent  the  shedding  of  blood,  were  forced  to  comply  with 
the  Polish  demands.^  By  this  act  of  compulsion  and  duress  it  was 
supposed  by  Poland  that  a  composite  international  person  had  been 
formed. 

In  the  union  of  Lublin  the  Poles  sought  for  themselves  a  satis- 
factory solution  of  the  problem — still  unsettled  after  more  than  a 
hundred  years  of  strife.  Mr.  Phillips  (-'Toland"),  reviewing  all  the 
attempts  and  failures  by  the  Poles  to  form  a  union  with  Lithuania, 
further  says:  "They  were  finally  amalgamated,  in  1569,  by  the 
union  of  Lublin,  and  even  then  the  union  was  an  uneasy  one." 

This  supposed  union  did  not  actually  change  conditions  in 
Lithuania.  The  title  of  Grand  Duchy,  the  Statute,  the  officials,  the 
government,  the  treasury,  and  the  army  were  retained.  Even  the 
Poles  themselves  endeavored,  perhaps  unconsciously,  to  sustain  the 
separate  boundaries  of  both  states. 

The  detaching  of  Lithuanian  provinces  and  the  annexing  of 
them  to  Poland,  indicates  that  there  was  no  real  union  between  those 
two  states.  If  there  had  been  a  union  of  any  kind  there  would  have 
been  no  necessity  for  the  annexations. 

The  king  tried  several  times  to  call  the  diet  for  final  reforms  in 
both  states,  but  all  his  attempts  were  vain.  Finally,  in  1572,  the 
Diet  was  summoned  at  "Warsaw,  but  it  did  not  bring  the  desired  re- 
sults. The  Lithuanian  delegates  protested  at  not  having  the  proper 
mandates  bearing  the  seals  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Lithuania,  and 
regardless  of  the  King's  protests  to  remain,  they  withdrew  from  the 
Diet. 

The  year  1572  witnessed  the  death  of  Sigismund  IT,  the  last 
ruler  of  the  Jagellon  dynasty.  It  marked  the  end  of  the  dynastic 
tie  between  Lithuania  and  Poland. 


'Mr.  Bain,  "Slavonic  Europe,"  says:  "One  relic  of  her  former  inde- 
pendence still  remained  to  Lithuania.  She  retained  her  own  separate 
dignitaries.  Thus,  to  the  very  end.  The  Grand  Hetman  and  the  Vice- 
Hetman,  the  Grand  Chancellor,  etc.,  continued  to  officiate  side  by  side 
with  their  colleagues  of  the  crown." 

23 


STATUS  OF  THE  TREATIES 

It  has  been  noted  that  there  were  many  attempts  between  Lithu- 
ania and  Poland  to  form  several  kinds  of  unions  or  alliances,  and 
to  ratify  other  treaties.  Were  they  legal  and  binding  ?  To  find  out 
the  legal  status  of  these  treaties,  it  is  necessary  to  observe  closely  the 
elements  requisite  to  the  formation  of  valid  treaties. 

The  conditions  which  are  essential  to  the  validity  of  treaties 
are,  that  the  parties  (states)  to  the  treaty  must  be  independent  to 
have  international  capacity  to  contract ;  the  plenipotentiaries  acting 
for  the  state  must  be  duly  authorized ;  the  contracting  parties  must 
have  freedom  of  consent  in  the  agreements.  "No  constraint  can  be 
put  upon  the  negotiators  of  the  treaty  by  threats  of  personal  violence, 
or  in  any  way  to  prohibit  their  free  action,  without  invalidating  their 
acts/'i 

Phillimore  says :  "The  free  reciprocal  consent  of  both  contract- 
ing parties,  which  is  indispensable  to  the  validity  of  a  contract  be- 
tween individuals,  is  equally  requisite  for  a  treaty  between  states."^ 

Considering  what  has  been  said,  it  leads  to  the  conclusion  that — 

(1)  The  union  is  an  "agreement  and  conjunction  of  mind, 
spirit,  will,  affection,  or  the  like."  That  it  is  an  act  uniting  or  join- 
ing two  or  more  things  into  one ;  that  the  treaties  between  states  are 
equal  to  a  making  of  contract  between  two,  or  more,  parties. 

(2)  That,  to  join  two  or  more  things  into  one,  it  is  necessar)?^ 
that  those  things  should  be  joinable.  To  make  a  legal  and  binding 
contract  it  is  necessary  that  the  minds  of  both  sides  should  meet,  or 
agree,  on  a  certain  point. 

(3)  That  the  party  or  parties  cannot  be  forced  by  threats  or 
other  illegal  means  to  enter  into  contract. 

Therefore,  do  the  stated  facts  in  former  pages  mean  that  Lithu- 
ania was  joinable  with  Poland,  when  resistance  on  the  part  of  the 
Lithuanians  was  always  strong?  Was  there  a  making  of  legal  con- 
tract— meeting  of  two  minds — when  the  first  attempt  to  create  a 
closer  tie  aroused  such  antagonism  in  the  Lithuanian  population? 
Of  course  not.  There  was  no  such  thing  as  a  meeting  of  two  minds, 
and,  therefore,  there  could  be  neither  real  nor  permanent  union  be- 
tween those  two  states. 


^Wilson,  "International  Law." 

^Phillimore,  "International  Law,"  Vol.  II,  p.  75. 


24 


Although  there  was  neither  legal,  morally  valid,  nor  permanent 
union,  nevertheless  the  historical  facts  reveal  that,  at  times,  there 
existed  certain  temporary  treaties,  brought  on  by  the  wave  of  time. 

These  treaties  were  the  formation  of  a  "personal  union,"^  and 
certain  alliances  which  at  times  were  formed  for  mutual  protection 
from  the  invasion  of  Tartars  and  the  Teutonic  Knights,  but  which 
were  in  existence  for  a  limited  period,  and  then  annulled  by  the 
Lithuanians. 

The  attachment  of  Lithuania  to  Russia  dissolved  all  the  ties 
with  Poland,  if  before  that  time  they  had  continued  to  exist. 

REVIEW  OF  THE  TREATIES 

The  following  is  a  review  of  the  several  attempts,  successes  and 
failures  in  the  formation  of  various  unions. 

It  is  impossible  to  rely  on  the  treaties,  but  the  closer  observance 
of  the  historical  events  will  reveal  the  true  status  of  these  unions,  by 
showing  the  attitude  of  the  population  concerned,  which  is  indispen- 
sable for  the  treaty-making  power. 

Dr.  Wheaton  writes  that,^  "The  obligation  of  treaties,  by  what- 
ever denomination  they  may  be  called,  is  founded,  not  merely  upon 
contract  itself,  but  upon  those  mutual  relations  between  the  two 
States  which  may  have  induced  them  to  enter  into  certain  engage- 
ments. Whether  the  treaty  be  termed  real  or  personal,  it  will  con- 
tinue so  long  as  these  relations  exist.  The  moment  they  cease  to 
exist,  by  means  of  a  change  in  the  social  organization  of  one  of  the 
contracting  parties;  of  such  a  nature  and  of  such  importance  as 
would  have  prevented  the  other  party  from  entering  into  the  con- 
tract had  he  foreseen  this  change,  the  treaty  ceases  to  be  obligatory 
upon  him." 

Dr.  Westlake^  says  that  the  terms  upon  which  the  different 
treaties  exist,  and  the  sentiments  the  populations  concerned  enter- 
tain with  regard  to  them,  are  among  the  leading  facts  of  the  world 
in  which  statecraft  has  to  move  and  act. 

This  review  will  confirm  the  facts  shown  in  former  pages  con- 

'"A  personal  union  is  in  existence  when  two  Sovereign  States  and 
separate  International  Persons  are  linked  together  through  the  acciden- 
tal facts  that  they  have  the  same  individual  as  monarch."  Oppenheim, 
"International  Law,"  Vol.   I,  p.   12G. 

'H.  Wheaton,  "International  Law,"  p.  30. 

'Westlake,  "International  Law." 

25 


cerning  the  sentiment  of  the  people  of  Lithuania  as  to  those  treaties, 
and  let  this  explain  the  validity  of  these  treaties. 

The  first  tie  was  formed  in  1386,  when  Jagela,  Grand  Duke  of 
Lithuania,  married  Jadwiga,  the  Polish  Queen.  But  tliis  concerned 
only  jus  privatum.  It  was  then  that  the  Polish  politicians  intended 
to  use  this  marriage  for  the  extension  of  their  influence  over  Lithu- 
ania. This  was  checked  by  the  Lithuanians  when  they  forced  Jagela 
to  abandon  the  throne  of  Lithuania,  and  then  chose  Vytautas  for  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania. 

In  1392,  a  friendly  agreement  was  made  for  the  better  resistance 
of  a  common  foe.  The  Poles,  not  satisfied  with  such  a  weak  agree- 
ment, forced  their  Queen,  Jadwiga,  to  remind  Vytautas  of  Jagela's 
supposed  promise,  made  at  his  marriage  with  Jadwiga,  to  unite 
Lithuania  with  Poland,  and,  therefore,  Lithuania  obligated  to  pay 
an  assessment  to  Poland. 

This  aroused  the  Lithuanians  to  the  Polish  intentions,  and,  to 
emphasize  that  Lithuania  never  had  possessed  anything  in  common 
with  Poland,  Vytautas  summoned  all  the  Lithuanian  nobility  to  a 
conference  where  he  was  declared  the  King  of  Lithuania  (1398). 

Another  treaty  was  made  in  1413,  when  both  states  agreed  to 
choose  their  rulers  with  the  consent  of  both  sides.  This  was  a  step 
towards  a  personal  union,  as  the  Polish  intentions  were  to  elect  the 
same  ruler  for  their  throne  and  ipso  facto  maintain  at  least  a  per- 
sonal union  with  Lithuania. 

After  the  death  of  Vytautas,  1430,  the  Lithuanians,  vnthout 
Polish  participation,  elected  Svitrigaila,  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania, 
thereby  destroying  the  agreement  of  1413.  In  1432,  Sigismund, 
succeeding  to  the  throne  of  Lithuania,  renewed  certain  agreements 
made  in  1401.  But  in  1440,  by  electing  Casimir  to  the  throne  of 
Lithuania,  the  Lithuanians  annulled  the  treaty  of  1432. 

This  lasted  until  the  year  of  1447,  when  the  Lithuanians  per- 
mitted Casimir  to  accept  the  crown  of  Poland,  thereby  consenting 
to  a  personal  union. 

Casimir's  death  in  1492  brought  annullment  of  the  personal 
union,  because  the  Lithuanians  elected  Alexander  for  their  ruler, 
while  John  Albrecht  ruled  Poland. 

In  1499  the  Treaty  of  1413  was  again  renewed  by  agreeing 
to  aid  each  other  in  wars — Lithuanians  with  the  Moscovites,  Poles 
with  the  Turks  and  Tartars. 


26 


Polish  politicians  strove  for  a  closer  tie,  and,  in  1501,  suc- 
ceeded in  electing  Alexander  for  their  King,  thereby  renewing  the 
short-lived  personal  union.  This  was  again  nullified  by  the  death 
of  Alexander  in  150fi. 

In  October  of  the  same  year,  the  Lithuanians  chose  for  their 
Grand  Duke,  Alexander's  younger  brother  Sigismund.  The  Poles 
hastened  to  again  renew  the  personal  union  by  electing  Sigismund 
for  their  King  in  December  of  the  same  year. 

Tliis  nnion  was  again  nullified  by  the  election  of  Sigismund 
Augustus  to  the  throne  of  Lithuania,  who  in  1544  became  de  facto 
ruler  of  Lithuania.  After  the  death  of  the  Polish  King  (1548), 
the  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania  was  declared  the  ruler  of  Poland,  and 
again  a  personal  union  was  renewed. 

In  1569,  at  the  conference  of  Lublin,  the  Polish  intention  was 
to  form  a  real  union  with  Lithuania.  But  as  has  been  noted, 
this  was  never  accomplished.  The  Treaty  which  was  formed  at 
this  conference,  in  fact,  was  even  less  than  a  personal  union. 

But  looking  from  the  legal  side,  it  will  be  seen  that  all  treaties 
at  this  conference  were  illegal  and  void,  because  some  of  the  dele- 
gates from  the  Lithuanian  provinces  were  threatened  with  the 
confiscation  of  their  property  if  they  failed  to  comply  with  the 
Polish  requests.  If  the  treaties  were  signed,  it  was  done  under 
duress,  and,  therefore,  they  were  invalid. 

None  of  the  Lithuanian  rulers  gave  an  oath  of  allegiance  to 
Poland.  After  the  Poles  elected  John  Albrecht  as  I-ung,  the 
Lithuanian  ruler,  Alexander,  sent  a  congratulatory  message  as  from 
one  nation  to  a  neighboring  nation.  This  did  not  sliow  any  indi- 
cation of  submission  to  the  newly  elected  King,  which  would  have 
been  shown  had  Lithuania  been  a  province  or  vassal  of  Poland. 

Many  sincere  writers  are  misled  through  an  inability  to  dis- 
cern the  difference  in  the  titles  of  Kingdom  and  Grand  Duchy. 
In  these  early  days  the  title  was  most  important  and  the  kingdom 
always  preceded  the  Grand  Duchy.  But  this  did  not  mean  that 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Grand  Duchy  should  have  been  restrained 
or  limited  by  the  kingdom  with  which  she  formed  an  alliance,  a 
personal  imion,  or  even  a  confederation. 


27 


LITHUANIA  CONSIDERED  AN  INDEPENDENT  STATE 

After  the  conference  of  Lublin  (1569),  even  though  one  ruler 
governed  both,  he  was  not  chosen  for  both  thrones  at  the  same  time. 
Usually,  the  Lithuanians  were  the  first  to  invite  him  to  the  throne 
of  Lithuania,  or  they  recognized  him  latex  as  Grand  Duke  of 
Lithuania. 

Immediately  after  the  death  of  Sigismund  Augustus,  the 
Lithuanians  attempted  to  secure  a  separate  ruler  for  their  country. 
They  invited  Feador,  the  son  of  John  IV,  the  Czar  of  Moscow. 
The  Czar,  in  place  of  his  son,  offered  himself,  but  the  Lithuanians 
refused  to  accept  him  as  their  Grand  Duke. 

Henry  Valois  was  invited  to  the  Polish  throne.  A  Lithu- 
anian representative,  Christopher  Eadvilas,  independently  of  the 
Poles,  while  in  Paris,  extended  to  Valois  a  separate  invitation  to 
the  throne  of  Lithuania  by  presenting  to  him  a  document  to  this 
effect  from  the  Diet  of  Vilnius.  This  invitation  was  a  conditional 
one,  namely:  That  he  should  not  limit  Lithuania's  sovereignty, 
and  that  the  Lithuanian  provinces  annexed  to  Poland  should  be 
restored  to  Lithuania. 

Various  international,  commercial  and  political  treaties  were 
ratified  apart  from  Polish  sanction. 

The  third  edition  of  the  Lithuanian  Statute,  published  in 
1588  (nineteen  years  after  the  "union"  of  Lublin),  on  page  12, 
contains  a  clause  strictly  forbidding  Poles  to  occupy  any  official 
position  in  Lithuania. 

The  Lithuanian  money  issued  in  the  year  1623  (54  years 
after  the  conference  of  Lublin)  on  one  side  reads:  "Sigismundus 
III  Dei  Gratia  Rex  Poloniaj  Magnus  Dux  Lituaniae."  On  the  other 
side  it  says :  "Soltdus  Moneta  Lituanise."  This  tends  to  confirm 
the  existence  of  Lithuanian  independence  even  after  the  "union" 
of  Lublin. 

In  the  course  of  time,  even  the  Polonized  Lithuanian  nobility 
realized  the  disaster  and  demoralization  brought  to  Lithuania 
by  the  Poles,  and  on  November  29,  1700,  a  conference  was  called 
at  Vilnius,  where  the  existing  relations  with  the  Poles  were 
renounced  categorically.  It  was  resolved  to  endeavor  by  every 
possible  means  to  return  to  Lithuania  the  glory  of  the  days  of 
Yytautas  and  Gedeminas.    These  documents  were  signed  by  Prince 


28 


Karol  lladvilas,  Chancellor  of  Lithuania;  Prince  M.  Oginskis, 
Minister  of  Finance;  Prince  A.  Oginskis,  Commander-in-Chief  of 
Samogitia^. 

Concerning  the  breach  or  termination  of  treaties,  or  their 
voidability,  Dr.  Wilson  says  that,  "a  treaty  is  voidable  when, 

(1)  it  is  concluded  in  excess  of  powers  of  contracting  parties, 

(2)  when  it  is  concluded  because  of  stress  of  force  upon  nego- 
tiators or  because  of  fraud, 

(3)  when  the  conditions  threaten  the  self-preservation  of  the 
state  or  its  necessary  attributes."^  The  following  test  of  void- 
ability is  given  by  Hall :  "Neither  party  to  a  contract  can  make  its 
binding  effect  dependent  at  his  will  upon  conditions  other  than 
those  contemplated  at  the  moment  when  the  contract  was  entered 
into,  and  on  the  other  hand  a  contract  ceases  to  be  binding  so  soon 
as  anything  which  formed  an  implied  condition  of  its  obligatory 
force  at  the  time  of  its  conclusion  is  essentially  altered."-' 

Eevision  of  the  annullment  of  the  treaties  with  Poland  will 
prove  that  the  Litliuanians  always  acted  in  accordance  with  the 
principles  of  international  law. 


ANARCHY  WAS  THE  RESULT  OF  THE  UNION 
OF  LUBLIN 

Certain  it  is,  that  the  union  of  Lublin  cannot  be  called  a  "real 
union''  between  Poland  and  Lithuania.  It  was  formed  a  sort  of 
confederation,  without  any  centralized  administration.  The  joint 
executive  was  an  elective  king,  paralyzed  by  diets,  by  govern- 
ment officials  appointed  for  life,  and  by  various  confederations 
organized  in  different  provinces.  Anarchy  raging  in  Poland  cor- 
rupted the  Lithuanian  nobility,  who  thought  of  nothing  except 
laying  taxes  on  the  people  and  undermining  royalty.  The  peasants 
were  oppressed  by  the  nobility.  Eeligious  friction  helped  to  bring 
anarchy  to  the  front.  The  authority  of  the  Kling  was  diminished. 
Some  of  the  noblemen  concentrated  their  thought  on  fattening 
their  pocket-books  only;  others  were  striving  to  get  hold  of  the 


'Narbut,  "Historia  Lltwy." 
^Wilson,  "International  Law." 
"Hall,  "International  Law,"  p.  342. 

29 


reins  of  administration,  and  were  almost  equal  to  the  feudal 
superiors. 

The  Poles  endeavored  to  incorporate  Lithuania  into  Poland, 
thereby  arousing  bitter  antagonism  among  the  Lithuanians.  These 
facts  encouraged  the  anarchy  which  was  already  raging  in  both 
states. 

Some  of  the  Lithuanian  noblemen  having  an  army  of  their 
own,  vsdth  Prince  Janusa  Eadvilas  (Eadzivill)  at  the  front,  made 
repeated  though  unsuccessful  attempts  to  separate  Lithuania  en- 
tirely from  Poland.  But  the  gangrene  of  anarchy  in  Poland  had 
gone  too  far.  It  was  too  late  to  be  checked  now;  as  a  consequence 
Lithuania  too  had  become  infected. 

During  the  time  Saxon  Augustus  reigned  (1733-1763), 
anarchy  reached  a  state  theretofore  unknown.  At  his  death  the 
ruling  faction  turned  towards  Maria-Theresa  and  Catherine  for 
mediation.  Instead  of  suppressing  anarchy,  through  their  diplo- 
matic intrigues,  Frederick,  Catherine  and  Maria-Theresa  ignored 
the  petitions  of  these  two  weakened  states,  and,  instead,  partitioned 
them  amongst  themselves,  thereby  ignoring  the  comity  of  nations 
and  the  principles  of  international  law. 

The  first  partition  was  in  1772;  the  second  followed  in  1792; 
and  the  last  one  in  1795,  when  greater  Lithuania  was  attached 
to  Eussia,  while  the  Prussian  provinces,  or  Lithuania  minor,  went 
to  Germany.  The  title  of  Grand  Duchy  of  Lithuania,  during 
the  Vienna  Congress  (1815)  was  transferred  to  Eussia,  it  passed 
from  one  Czar  to  another  at  each  coronation,  and  it  was  officially 
used  by  the  last  Czar,  Nicholas  II. 

RUSSIAN  OPPRESSION 

Catherine  II,  while  ruling  Lithuania,  pledged  herself  to 
respect  the  laws  of  this  new  acquisition.  She  appointed  a  viceroy, 
who  made  his  headquarters  in  Vilnius,  the  capital.  The  successors 
of  Catherine  followed  her  example  until  1830,  when  persecutions 
commenced. 

Lithuania  was  destroyed  politically,  divided  into  the  Eussian 
administrative  districts  of  Vilna,  Kovna,  Grodna,  Suvalki,  Minsk, 
Mohilev,  Courland  and  Vitebsk,  was  politically  effaced  from  the 
map  of  Europe  through  the  influence  of  Eussian  bureaucracy.  The 
official  use  of  even  the  name  of  Lithuania  was  prohibited  by  an 

30 


ukase  in  1840,  and  replaced  by  the  geographic  name  "Northwestern 
Province."  The  era  of  martyrdom  then  began  for  the  Lithuanian 
nation.  Russification  was  more  and  more  accentuated.  The  prin- 
cipal stages  of  it  were  the  transference  of  the  University  of  Vilnius 
to  Kiev;  the  suppression  of  the  Statute  of  Lithuania  (1848)  and 
its  replacement  by  the  Russian  code;  the  bloody  repression  of  the 
revolutions,  the  exile  and  confiscation  of  the  property  of  many 
Lithuanian  landlords. 

All  of  these  violent  measures  together  have  done  less  harm 
to  the  Lithuanian  nation  than  the  prohibition  of  the  use  of  the 
Roman  alphabet  in  literature,  which  the  Lithuanians  had  adopted 
in  tlie  16th  century  through  contact  with  western  civilization.  In 
place  of  the  prohibited  type,  the  government  imposed  the  Russian 
alphabet  (grazdanka)  in  order  to  be  able  to  exercise  a  greater  in- 
fluence on  the  Lithuanian  people.  But  the  people  preferred  for 
forty  years  to  content  themselves  with  books  printed  abroad,  and 
secretly  imported  to  Lithuania  under  Russian  domination. 

It  is  impossible  to  estimate  the  moral  loss  caused  to  the  Lithu- 
anian people  by  this  prohibition.  The  whole  nation  was  condemned 
to  mental  stagnation  during  the  second  half  of  the  19th  century 
(18G4-1904),  for  it  was  without  the  press,  that  indispensable  in- 
strument for  national  development.  It  is  not  astonishing,  there- 
fore, that  the  Lithuanians,  deprived  of  the  means  of  affirming  their 
existence,  were  no  longer  regarded  as  a  nation. 

But  all  oppressions  failed  to  reach  their  objects.  The  severe 
oppressions  and  persecutions  by  autocratic  Russia,  particularly  by 
the   Muravieff    (generally  known   in   Lithuania  as   "hangman" )i 


'Muravieff  was  sent  to  Lithuania  to  suppress  the  Lithuanian  activ- 
ities for  the  emancipation  in  1863.  The  "Frazer's  Magazine,"  Novem- 
ber, 1863,  published  a  long  article,  written  by  an  eye-witness,  describing 
the  brutalities  of  Muravieff  in  Lithuania.  Following  is  an  extract, 
which  indicates  how  the  Lithuanians  received  him: 

"Mouraviev's  character  had  long  preceded  him  to  the  capital  of  his 
command.  On  reaching  Vilna,  on  his  first  ride  through  the  city,  he 
came  to  a  large  market-place  situated  on  the  outskirts,  where  he  was 
surprised  by  the  sight  of  three  gibbets,  a  large  and  two  small  ones, 
erected  on  a  little  eminence.  He  was  not  long  in  learning  that  this 
was  intended  for  himself,  and  the  two  smaller  ones  for  two  of  his 
friends.  'Good,'  declared  Mouraviev,  'Don't  let  them  be  taken  down, 
they  will  come  in  useful  by  and  by.'  So  the  gibbets  remained  for 
some  days,  and,  sure  enough,  they  at  last  found  occupiers  whom  their 
erectors  little  thought  to  see  swinging  there. 

"Another  greeting  which  he  received  was  a  proclamation  offering 
20,000  rubles  for  his  assassination,  which  was  afterwards  increased 
to  100,000,  as  the  accomplishment  became  more  diflBcult." 

31 


governor  of  Lithuania,  were  in  vain;  these  violent  measures, 
aimed  to  annihilate  the  Lithuanian  nation,  produced  contrary  re- 
sults; they  reawakened  the  national  consciousness  in  the  people 
of  Lithuania. 

In  1883  there  appeared  at  Tilze  (Tilsit,  in  Lithuania  Minor) 
the  patriotic  Lithuanian  Journal  "Ausra"  (Dawn),  founded  by 
the  great  Lithuanian  patriot  Jonas  Basanius.  This  periodical  was 
secretly  imported  into  Eussian  Lithuania  and  distributed  among 
the  population  to  nourish  their  starving  Lithuanian  souls. 

The  national  propaganda  in  Lithuania  rapidly  grew  stronger. 
"Ausra"  was  soon  followed  by  several  other  newspapers,  such  as 
"Varpas"  (The  Bell),  "Ukininkas"  (The  Farmer),  and,  in  spite 
of  the  severest  persecutions  by  the  Eussian  authorities,  were  spread- 
ing more  and  more  until  they  penetrated  into  nearly  every  corner 
of  Lithuania.  These  papers  were  read  by  every  Lithuanian,  and 
were  passed  from  one  to  another  until  they  wore  out.  In  such 
a  manner  the  Lithuanian  people  for  forty  years  kept  burning  the 
spark  of  national  spirit,  and  fought  obstinately  the  many  futile 
attempts  of  the  reactionary  Eussian  government  to  enforce  the 
Eussian  alphabet  in  Lithuania  and  thereby  pave  the  way  for  more 
thorough  Eussification. 

Space  does  not  permit  an  enumeration  here  of  the  most  brutal 
acts  of  oppression  directed  against  the  Lithuanian  nation.  But,  it 
seems,  that  what  has  been  said  above  should  suffice  to  give  a  general 
idea  of  the  difficulties  with  which  the  Lithuanians  were  confronted. 
The  people,  in  despair,  attempted  to  escape  from  these  persecutions ; 
they  had  to  leave  their  native  country  in  great  numbers  to  seek 
liberty  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  For  this  reason, 
during  the  second  half  of  the  19th  century,  over  half  a  million  of 
them  emigrated  to  the  United  States  of  America. ^ 

CULTURAL  WORK  WAS  PROGRESSING 

Although  oppressed  and  persecuted,  the  Lithuanian  people 
gave  proof  of  their  activity  in  the  cultural  domain.  According  to 
the  census  of  1897,  at  the  very  period  when  the  printing  of  Lithu- 


^Enjoying  the  liberty  of  this  adopted  country,  they  have  created 
numerous  fraternal  organizations  and  published  many  books  and  vari- 
ous periodicals  through  which  they  maintained  the  national  tie  with 
their  mother  country. 

Concerning  the  Lithuanians  in  the  United  States,  a  long  article  was 
published  in  the  "Charities"  magazine,  December  3,  1904,  by  A.  Kaupas. 

32 


anian  newspapers  and  books  was  vigorously  forbidden,  the  Lithu- 
anians held  first  place  among  the  various  peoples  in  the  Russian 
Empire  in  the  percentage  of  literates.* 

In  1904  the  stupid  ukase  prohibiting  the  use  of  the  Lithuanian 
alphabet  was  abolished  and  the  Lithuanians,  profiting  by  this 
situation,  doubled  their  scientific  and  literary  activities.  They 
established  the  Litliuanian  Society  of  Sciences  (Lietuviu  Mokslo 
Draugija)  in  1907,  in  order  to  bring  together  Lithuanian  savants. 

This  society,  by  scientific  researches,  made  collections  of 
ancient  articles  and  thus  built  the  foundation  for  the  Lithuanian 
IS'ational  Museum  at  Vilnius,  but  the  work  was  interrupted  by  the 
outbreak  of  the  war.  It  has  also  published  numerous  scientific 
works,  especially  on  ethnographic  and  linguistic  subjects.  In  1914 
this  organization  had  700  active  members;  its  president  is  Dr. 
Jonas  Basaniup,  one  of  the  promoters  of  the  national  revival. 

The  Society  of  Fine  Arts  (Lietuviu  Dailes  Draugija)  con- 
tains a  great  many  artists,  some  of  whom  have  acquired  great  fame 
outside  of  their  country.  Ciurlianis,  Zmuidzinavicius,  the  sculptor 
Rimsa,  and  several  others  may  be  mentioned. 

The  paintings  of  M.  K.  Ciurlianis  united  the  Lithuanian 
national  style  and  composition  of  colors  with  the  modern  school  of 
the  impressionists  and  the  symbolists.  Death  claimed  the  famous 
painter  in  1912. 

During  the  "period  of  half  a  score  of  years,  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  books  have  been  published,  while  about  fifty  reviews  and 
daily  papers  have  sprung  into  existence,  of  which  the  most  widely 
circulated  are  '"Viltis,"  "Lietuvos  Zinios,"  "Draugija,"  "Saltinis," 
"Yienybe,"  "Lietuvos  Ukininkas."^ 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  development  of  public  instruction, 
the  Lithuanians  have  founded  several  societies  like  "Saule"  (The 
Sun),  at  Kaunas,  which,  through  the  medium  of  its  60  branches, 
has  created  hundreds  of  primary  schools,  popular  libraries  and 
reading  rooms  for  the  people.  This  society  has  a  Normal  School 
which  prepares  teachers  of  both  sexes  for  its  primary  schools;  one 
commercial  and  three  secondary  schools.     "Saule"  owes  its  pros- 


'Lithuanians,  52.01  per  cent;  Russians,  29.38  per  cent;  Poles,  34.78 
per  cent. 

'There  are  about  thirty  periodicals  in  the  Lithuanian  language  pub- 
lished in  the  United  States,  and  three  in  England,  several  newspapers 
being  published  in  East  Prussia. 

33 


perity  to  its  president,  the  great  Lithuanian  patriot,  Mgr.  C. 
Alsauskas. 

The  society  "Ziburys"  (The  Torchlight),  which  has  57  branches 
in  the  district  of  Suvalki,  has  the  same  object  as  "Saule."  This 
organization  supports  numerous  schools  and  circulating  libraries  in 
the  villages,  also  a  college  for  young  ladies  at  Mariampolis.  Its 
president  is  Fr.  Gustaitis.  The  society  "Eytas"  (The  Morning), 
directed  by  Fr.  Steponaitis,  has  for  its  object  the  development  of 
public  instruction  in  the  district  of  Vilnius  and  Gardinas  (Grodna). 

The  society  of  "St.  Casimir,"  founded  by  the  eminent  patriot, 
poet  and  Lithuanian  scholar,  Mgr.  A.  Dambrauskas,  has  rendered 
the  country  great  services  in  the  development  of  public  instruction 
and  in  the  literary  revival  of  the  country.  It  has  published  thou- 
sands of  books,  scientific  as  well  as  popular,  and  published  several 
newspapers  and  reviews,  such  as  "Draugija,"  "Vienybe." 

The  society  "Blaivybe,"  which  promulgates  ideas  of  temper- 
ance among  the  masses,  was  also  established.  This  society  spreads 
among  the  people  instructive  books  as  well.  Its  membership  num- 
bers over  50,000,  and  about  several  hundred  branches  in  the  various 
parts  of  the  country.  The  president  of  this  society  is  Eev.  F. 
Galdikas. 

We  have  mentioned  here  only  the  better  known  cultural  organ- 
izations, but  others  of  less  importance  also  exist. 

ECONOMIC  ORGANIZATIONS 

The  Lithuanians  did  not  forget  to  organize  and  develop  the 
economic  forces  of  their  country.  First,  taking  into  account  the 
character  of  the  country,  they  have  created  several  agricultural 
societies,  such  as  "Ukininku  Bendrove,"  "Zagre,"  "Ukio  Eateliai," 
and  many  others.  These  societies,  among  other  things,  have  for 
their  object  to  give  the  peasants  practical  instruction  in  agriculture 
to  facilitate  the  buying  of  agricultural  implements,  artificial  fer- 
tilizers and  seeds,  and  to  improve  the  breeds  of  cattle. 

As  the  industries  of  Lithuania  are  not  greatly  developed,  the 
industrial  organizations  are  not  numerous.  Nevertheless,  we  may 
mention  the  association  "Vilija"  at  Vilnius,  for  the  construction 
of  agricultural  machines  and  iitensils,  "Birute,"  at  Siauliai,  a 
society  for  the  manufacturing  of  marmalades  and  candy,  and  sev- 
eral others. 


34 


Commerce  ha?  been  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews,  but 
latel}^,  the  Lithuanians  have  succeeded  in  concentrating  a  great 
deal  of  it  in  their  own  hands. 

The  preferred  form  for  commercial  organizations  is  the 
co-operative  one.  One  finds  them  in  nearly  every  hamlet.  The 
financial  associations  are  frequently  found  under  the  form  of  mutual 
credit  societies  and  there  are  over  a  hundred  of  them. 

There  are  several  professional  societies,  such  as  societies  of 
artists,  of  literary  men,  of  students;  also  of  working  men,  of  young 
girls,  etc. 

It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  all  these  societies,  as  well  as 
public  and  social  life  in  Lithuania,  have  to  develop  under  extremely 
unfavorable  circumstances,  as  the  reactionary  Russian  government 
has  done  much  to  discourage  and  retard  them.  In  order  to  obtain 
permission  to  organize  any  kind  of  societ}^,  it  was  necessary  to 
surmount  a  thousand  difficulties.  Societies,  the  foundation  of  which 
had  been  authorized,  depended  entirely  on  the  good  pleasure  of  the 
"tchinovniks"  (Russian  officials),  and  ran  the  risk  every  day  of  be- 
ing ended.  Once  ended,  the  society  was  resuscitated  under  another 
name.  There  are  societies  which  have  been  several  times  sup- 
pressed, and  which  have  again  reappeared  under  the  cover  of  otlier 
names. 

LITHUANIANS  UNDER  GERMAN  DOMINATION^ 

A  general  statement  will  suffice  to  disclose  the  conditions  in 
that  part  of  Lithuania — known  as  East  Prussia — which,  after  the 
partition  of  the  State  of  Lithuania,  fell  under  the  domination  of 
Germany.  This  territory  is  much  smaller  and  the  Lithuanian 
population  was  less  numerous  than  the  one  under  the  govern- 
ment of  Russia. 

The  Lithuanian  language  and  the  customs  of  the  people  at 
first  were  tolerated  by  the  German  government.  At  Karaliaucius 
(Koenigsberg)  University  a  chair  was  established  for  the  Lithu- 
anian language  and  literature.  A  scholarship  prize  was  offered 
to  the  Lithuanian  youtli  who  happened  to  be  too  poor  materially 
to  pursue  higher  education. 


'Prof.  J.  Gabrys,  "A  Sketch  of  the  Lithuanian  Nation."    Paris,  1914. 
Otto  Kessler,  "Die  Baltenlander  Und  Litauen."     Berlin,  1916. 
"W.  St.  Vidunas,  "La  Lituanie  dans  le  passe  et  dans  le  present," 
Geneve.  1917. 

35 


AUhough  Prussian  Lithuania  did  not  enjoy  a  complete  auton- 
omy, nevertheless  she  had  privileges — at  the  commencement  of 
German  rule  over  her  territory — which  permitted  her  to  develop 
comparatively  freely  her  national  individuality.  This  "freedom" 
was  not  enjoyed  very  long,  for,  with  the  rise  of  German  power, 
the  oppression  of  the  Lithuanian  people  increased.  The  more 
Prussia  enlarged  her  power,  the  more  aggressive  she  hecame. 

Bismarck  was  the  one  to  inaugurate  the  policy  of  extermina- 
tion of  the  Lithuanian  race  in  Germany.  This  policy  was  con- 
tinued by  his  successors.  It  was  then  that  the  political  and  in- 
tellectual growth  of  the  Lithuanian  people  in  Prussia  was  almost 
choked,  because  it  was  being  covered  by  the  Prussian  spiked  helmet. 

The  Lithuanian  language  was  excluded  not  only  from  schools, 
where  the  use  of  it  was  severely  prohibited,  even  as  a  means  of  ex- 
planation to  the  Lithuanian  children,  but  also  prohibited  in  the 
Lithuanian  Protestant  Churches  and  replaced  by  the  German 
tongue.  There  was  no  place  for  the  Lithuanian  language  in  public 
establishments,  not  even  interpreters  were  kept,  and  the  Lithuanian 
peasants  having  any  transactions  with  officials  had  to  learn  the 
German  language  before  attempting  the  settlement  of  their  affairs. 
The  local  authorities  (German)  of  Tilze  (Tilsit),  Klaipeda 
(Memel)  and  Gumbine  districts,  which  were  inhabited  mostly  by 
the  Lithuanians,  used  every  available  means  to  Germanize  as  com- 
pletely as  possible  the  Lithuanian  population. 

The  German  government  has  not  concurred  in  the  opinion  of 
the  great  philosopher  Emanuel  Kant,  who  said  110  years  ago: 

'Tiithuania,  having  a  loyal  character,  deserves  the  pro- 
tection of  the  State.  She  must  be  preserved,  for  her  tongue 
possesses  the  key  which  opens  all  the  enigmas  not  only 
of  philology,  but  also  of  history."^ 

LITHUANIA  AND  THE  GREAT  EUROPEAN  WAR 

The  armies  of  the  present  European  war  overran  Lithuania 
while  she  was  earnestly  engaged  in  cultural  work  and  intent  upon 
realizing  her  liberation  from  the  German  and  Eussian  yoke.    Lithu- 


'A  preface  to  the   "Grammatik   der   Litauischen   Sprache,"  by   F. 
Kurschat,  written  by  Emanuel  Kant. 

36 


ania  witnessed  the  first  meeting  and  engagement  between  the  Rus- 
sian and  German  armies. 

At  the  end  of  1914.  and  the  beginning  of  1915,  the  entire 
country  became  the  bloody  arena  of  many  horrible  struggles  of  two 
great  armies. 

Wliile  Germany  was  gaining  the  upper  hand  and  forcing  the 
Russians  to  fall  back,  the  retreating  Russian  army  tried  to  destroy 
everything  of  value  in  Lithuania,  in  order  that  Germany  would  not 
profit  by  its  capture.  The  people  were  forced  to  abandon  their 
beloved  country  and  accompany  the  retreating  Russian  armies.* 

In  this  way  two  hundred  thouFand  Lithuanians  parted  with 
their  homes  and  all  of  their  property,  and  were  sent  to  various 
parts  of  Russia,  some  of  them  as  far  as  the  Ural  Mountains  and 
Siberia. 

In  1915  practically  the  whole  of  Lithuania  was  already  oc- 
cupied by  German  armies.  What  the  retreating  Russian  armies 
did  not  destroy  the  invading  Germans  confiscated  and  sent  to 
Germany.2 

On  account  of  the  war,  Lithuanians  had  to  sustain  not  only 
great  material  losses,  but  moral  and  physical  as  well.^ 

The  country,  which  was  reviving,  beginning  to  flourish  and 
preparing  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  foreign  domination,  has  now 
been  laid  waste.  About  one-quarter  of  the  population,  mostly  the 
working  class,  is  in  absolute  want.     There  is  no  way  to  provide 


*"Pro  Lithuania,"  a  journal  published  by  the  Lithuanian  Informa- 
tion Bureau  at  Lausanne,  Switzerland,  Nos.  1-6,  1915-16,  printed  several 
articles  by  eminent  journalists  vividly  describing  the  plight  and  suf- 
ferings of  the  Lithuanian  refugees  who  were  scattered  throughout 
Russia. 

"The  New  York  Times,"  August  13,  1916,  published  a  long  and  in- 
teresting interview  with  the  members  of  the  American-Lithuanian 
Mission,  which,  in  the  beginning  of  1916,  was  sent  to  Lithuania  to  in- 
vestigate conditions  and  organize  relief  for  the  war  stricken  people  of 
Lithuania.     The  Mission  returned  August  9,  1916. 

The  report  of  this  Mission  was  of  a  very  startling  nature,  and  if 
not  for  the  documents  which  they  possessed  it  would  have  been  in- 
credible. The  members  of  the  Mission  openly  charged  some  German 
officials,  as  well  as  Poles  from  Posen — West  Prussia — acting  as  German 
gendarmes,  and  also  the  Polish  Nationalist  party,  with  efforts  to  use 
the  present  lamentable  moment  of  the  Lithuanian  people  to  annihilate 
them.  It  shocks  humanity  with  the  charges  that  even  the  funds  col- 
lected abroad  for  the  war  sufferers  are  used  for  Polonization  of  the 
unhappy  children  of  Lithuania. 

*"The  Current  History  Magazine,"  March,  1918,  published  a  long 
and  interesting  article  on  German  atrocities  in  Lithuania. 

37 


for  them,  for  there  is  no  work.  These  people  are  kept  alive  only 
by  what  others  can  spare  them.  They  live  in  the  evacuated 
trenches  or  dugouts,  because  many  of  the  towns  and  villages  are  in 
ruins.  Such  cities  as  Siauliai,  N'aumestis,  Tytavenai  are  but  heaps 
of  ashes.  Twenty-five  liistorical  and  beautiful  churches,  some  of 
them  hundreds  of  years  old,  were  razed  to  the  ground. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war  there  were  over  500,000  Lithu- 
anians in  the  Eussian  army.  Others  are  with  the  French  and 
British  forces.  Approximately  25,000  are  serving  in  the  United 
States  army.  ThuS;  side  by  side  with  the  Allies,  the  Lithuanians 
are  fighting  for  democracy.  They  shed  their  blood  with  the  hope 
that  the  cause  of  their  mother  country  will  be  recognized  at  the 
impending  Peace  Congress. 

For  all  the  injuries  and  injustices  brought  down  upon  their 
country,  the  Lithuanians  want  no  other  recompense  than  the 
recognition  of  their  inherent  right  to  be  free  and  independent  in 
their  own  country.  They  ask  nothing  that  is  not  rightfully  theirs. 
They  ask  for  the  right  to  live  as  an  independent  nation.  They 
ask  for  the  right  to  mould  their  own  destiny.  For  they  desire  only 
that  they  may  have  the  opportunity  to  carry  on  the  work  of  culture 
in  their  native  land  and  to  contribute  thereby  to  the  assurance  of 
lasting  peace,  as  a  nation  enslaved  and  oppressed  could  not  do. 

THE  LITHUANIANS  NEVER  CEASED  DEMANDING 
INDEPENDENCE^ 

Since  the  last  partition  of  Lithuania  (1795),  when  they  were 
deprived  of  the  last  attribute  of  freedom,  the  Lithuanians  have 
never  given  up  their  hope  of  restoring  the  independence  of  Lithu- 
ania, and  every  opportunity  has  been  seized  to  further  the  cause. 
The  Russian  authorities  were  fully  aware  of  the  Lithuanian  de- 
mands, and  at  times  have  even  shown  their  intentions  to  grant  some 
sort  of  freedom. 

During  the  19th  century,  although  many  attempts  were  made 
by  the  Poles  to  regain  their  freedom  from  Russia,  it  has  never  been 
Russia's  intention  to  include  Lithuania  in  the  restored  Poland. 


^See  the  following  magazines:  Contemporary  Review,  August,  1917; 
The  Edinburgh  Review,  October,  1917;  The  British  Review,  July,  1915; 
The  Literary  Digest,  July  24,  1915;  The  Nation,  October  21,  1915;  The 
Outlook,  December  23,  1905;   The  Round  Table,  March,  191S. 

38 


Even  the  Russian  revolutionary  leaders  in   1825  opposed   Polish 
designs  in  Lithuania. 

"The  Poles,  of  course,  demanded  the  frontiers  of  1772, 
but  Pastel  declared  definitely  for  the  restoration  of  an 
ethnographical  Poland  only  (not  including,  i.  e.,  the  Little 
Ikussian  and  Lithuanian  elements)."^ 

In  1815,  during  Alexander's  stay  at  Warsaw^  a  Polish  depu- 
tation, with  Prince  Oginsk}'  at  their  head,  pretending  to  be  Lithu- 
anians, went  to  him  to  ask  in  the  name  of  the  Lithuanians  the 
annexation  of  the  Lithuanian  provinces  to  Poland.  But  this 
deputation  was  received  by  Alexander  on  condition  that  they  should 
not  so  much  as  mention  the  annexation  of  the  Lithuanian  provinces 
to  Poland  much  less  the  annexation  of  Lithuania  proper.^ 

As  late  as  1863  the  Poles  were  forbidden  by  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment to  purchase  real  property  in  Lithuania. - 

The  Lithuanians  did  not  at  first  take  any  drastic  measures 
to  recover  their  independence,  but  diplomatic  negotiations  were 
constantly  in  progress.  Thus,  in  the  autumn  of  1810,  several 
Lithuanian  noblemen  began  negotiations  for  the  creation  of  a  Grand 
Duchy  of  Lithuania.^ 

In  the  course  of  the  Napoleonic  wars  a  proposal  was  made  to 
grant  autonomy  to  Lithuania,  but  the  indecision  of  Czar  Alexander 
destroyed  this  proposal. 

A  Lithuanian  army  was  maintained  up  to  1825,  when  Alex- 
ander ordered  the  uniforms  changed. 

When  Xapoleon  crossed  the  Xiemen  and  entered  Lithuania  on 
his  way  to  Russia  in  1812,  his  armies  were  joined  by  many 
Lithuanians.'*  On  entering  Vilnius  he  was  greeted  by  the  Lithu- 
anians, and  immediately  '*the  Lithuanian  standard,  representing 
a  galloping  horse,  was  floating  above  the  walls  of  Vilna."^ 

Every  movement  for  emancipation  (except  the  Polish  revolu- 
tion of  1830)  was  joined  in  by  the  Lithuanians  and  pursued  vigor- 
ously. In  the  uprising  of  1863  most  of  the  distinguished  leaders 
were  Lithuanians. 


'A.  Kornilov,  "Modern  Russian  History,"  1916. 

*Morfill,  "The  History  of  Nations." 

'Phillips,  "Poland." 

*  "Modern  History  of  Russia." 

'Morfill,  "The  History  of  Nations." 


39 


During  the  Eussiaii  revolution  of  ]i)05i  a  conference  was  called 
at  the  city  of  Vilnius,  the  capital  of  Lithuania ;  two  thousand  dele- 
gates representing  all  sections  of  Lithuania  and  all  political  parties 
were  present.     The  following  demands  were  made: 

1.  Autonomy  of  Lithuania  with  the  Diet  in  her  capital,  Vilnius. 

2.  Compulsory  education  in  the  Lithuanian  language 

3.  Re-establishment  of  the  Lithuanian  University  at  Vilnius. 

4.  Freedom  of  speech  and  the  press,  etc. 

Only  autonomy  was  demanded  because  it  could  not  be  expected 
that  autocratic  Russia  would  grant  more  at  one  time. 

At  the  Letto-Lithuanian  conference,  Oct.  4,  1915,  at  Berne, 
Switzerland,  a  resolution  was  adopted  demanding  complete  inde- 
pendence for  Lithuania. 

LITHUANIANS  AT  THE  INTERNATIONAL  CONFERENCE 

June  27-29,  1916,  at  the  International  Conference,  Lausanne, 
Switzerland,  where  28  nations  were  represented,  five  accredited 
Lithuanian  delegates  were  present — three  from  Lithuania  and  two 
from  the  United  States  of  America.  During  a  session  of  the  Con- 
ference, a  long  Lithuanian  declaration  was  read,  which,  after  re- 
citing the  historical  events  in  the  Lithuanian  State,  presented  the 
following  conclusion : 

"Relying  on  these  bases,  the  Lithuanian  nation  with  its  own 
traditions,  culture,  national  ideals  and  its  individuality,  believe  that 
the  only  way  a  nation  can  survive  is  to  acquire  its  own  rights  in  all 
domains  of  life,  and  that  the  nation  should  direct  its  own  destiny. 
The  young  Lithuania  presenting  the  facts  that  for  centuries  Lithu- 
ania was  an  independent  state,  and  now  asking  for  her  own  rights, 
it  is  not  her  object  to  impose  on  the  rights  of  those  nations  which 
were  included  and  formed  a  part  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Lithuania. 

"The  Lithuanian  nation,  which  for  centuries  experienced  so 
much  disappointment,  sees  the  guarantee  of  her  future  and  the 
sufficient  guarantee  of  her  freedom  only  in  the  complete  inde- 
pendence of  Lithuania." 

In  January,  1917,  the  Lithuanians  living  in  the  United  States 
presented  a  declaration  to  all  diplomatic  representatives  at  Washing- 
ton, the  last  part  of  which  reads : 


'  Concerning  the  Lithuanian  movement  during  the  Russian  revolu- 
tion see  "The  Outlook."  December  23,  1905. 

40 


"At  this  critical  nioinent  when  the  world  is  called  upon  to 
solve  a  very  important  problem,  namely,  that  of  establishing  a 
humane  and  assuring  of  a  lasting  peace;  we,  the  empowered  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Lithuanian  nation,  assume  the  privilege  and  duty 
of  declaring  that  it  is  our  sincere  belief  that  the  lasting  peace  can 
be  established  only  if  every  living  nation  be  given  the  right  to  deter- 
mine her  own  destiny;  therefore  be  it 

''Resolved,  That  we,  the  empowered  representatives  of  the 
Lithuanian  nation,  hereby  declare  and  respectfully  demand  of  the 
representative?  of  governments  that  will,  at  the  termination  of  the 
war,  negotiate  peace: 

1.  That  ethnographic  Lithuania  be  united  into  one  political 
body,  and 

2.  That  the  United  Lithuanian  State  be  given  an  absolute 
political  and  economical  independence." 

This  declaration  was  commended  by  the  Lithuanians  living  in 
the  United  States,  Great  Britain,^  South  America,  Switzerland 
and  Lithuania. 

Over  200.000  Lithuanian  refugees  in  Eussia  who  were  forced 
to  abandon  their  homes  and  flee  to  unknown  countries  to  be  scat- 
tered in  all  parts  of  Russia,  called  a  conference  at  Petrograd,  May 
27,  191T,  to  consider,  through  their  delegates,  the  situation  of  their 
mother  country,  Lithuania. 

The  following  is  a  conclusion  of  the  adopted  resolutions : 

Be  It  Resolved  1.  That  the  ethnographic  Lithuania  be 
established  into  an  independent  state,  continually  neutral. 

2.  The  independence  and  neutrality  of  Lithuania  must  be 
guaranteed  at  the  Peace  Congress. 

3.  Lithuanian  representatives  must  be  admitted  to  the  Peace 
Congress. 

CONVENTION  OF  THE  LITHUANIANS  OF  AMERICA 

March  13-14,  1918,  a  convention  of  tlie  Lithuanians  residing 
in  the  United  States  of  America  was  held  at  the  Madison  Square 
Garden  Theatre,  Xew  York  City.  The  1,500  delegates,  representing 
1,000  organizations  and  colonies,  assembled  for  the  purpose  of  de- 


'Concerning  the  Lithuanians  living  In  Great  Britain,  it  is  worth 
consulting  "The  Contemporary  Review,"  August,  1917.  Also  "Pro 
Lithuania,"  .Tanuary,  1916. 

41 


daring  their  determined  will  regarding  the  future  of  their  mother 
country,  Lithuania. 

The  following  resolutions  were  adopted : 

Whereas  the  Lithuanian  Nation  forms  an  ethnographic,  cul- 
tural, economic  and  political  inseparable  body;  and 

Whereas  the  historic  past  of  Lithuania  and  the  present  demo- 
cratic development  of  the  world  reaffirms  to  the  Lithuanian  Nation 
the  undeniable  right  to  re-establish  its  own  sovereign  State;  and 

Whereas  in  the  question  of  its  ultimate  political  destiny  the 
Lithuanian  Nation  maintains  the  right  to  follow  its  own  national 
ideals;  and 

Whereas  nations  can  successfully  pursue  their  cultural  courses 
and  develop  their  economic  resources  only  when  in  possession  of 
their  full  political  freedom;  and 

Whereas  every  nation  has  an  inherent  right  to  decide  its  own 
political  destiny;  and 

Whereas  the  present  war  conditions  have  rendered  the  recog- 
nition of  Lithuanian  political  freedom  of  international  importance 
and  therefore  it  becomes  a  subject  to  be  deliberated  upon  at  the 
international  peace  congress;  and 

Whereas  only  the  international  congress  can  give  a  true 
guarantee  of  the  political  sovereignty  of  Lithuania  and  not  any 
warring  nation  striving  now  to  enslave  Lithuania;  and 

Whereas  our  highly  esteemed  President,  Woodrow  Wilson, 
adheres  to  the  principle  declared  by  him  to  the  United  States 
Senate,  January  22,  1917,  that 

"No  peace  can  last,  or  ought  to  last,  which  does  not  recognize 
and  accept  the  principle  that  governments  derive  all  their  just 
powers  from  consent  of  the  governed,  and  that  no  right  anywhere 
exists  to  hand  people  about  from  severeignty  to  sovereignty  as  if 
they  were  property." 

Therefore,  the  Convention  of  the  Lithuanians  of  America, 
after  grave  consideration  of  the  present  political  situation  of 
Lithuania,  resolved, 

I. — To  respectfully  request  the  President  of  the  United  States 
and  the  allied  as  well  as  the  neutral  governments  of  the  world,  to 
recognize  the  following  demands: 

1.  That  for  the  full  and  unhindered  development  of  Lithu- 
ania it  is  necessary  that  Lithuania  become  a  sovereign  and  in- 


42 


dependent  democratic  state  within  its  own  ethnographic  boun- 
daries, with  the  necessary  economic  corrections. 

2.  That  the  independence  of  Lithuania  be  assured  by  the  in- 
ternational peace  congress,  and  that  delegates  of  Lithuania  be 
given  right  to  take  part  with  full  deliberative  powers. 
II. — That  these  resolutions  be  respectfully  presented  to  our 
highly  esteemed  President,  Woodrow  Wilson,  who  lias  unceasingly 
championed  protection  of  the  rights  of  small  and  subject  nationali- 
ties, and  to  all  allied  and  neutral  governments. 

Be  It  Further  Eesolved,  That  the  President,  Woodrow  Wilson, 
and  the  nations  of  the  world,  be  respectfully  requested  that  the  right 
to  a  separate  and  deliberative  representation  at  the  impending  inter- 
national peace  conference  be  given  to  the  representatives  of  the 
people  of  Lithuania. 

LITHUANIA  SEPARATED  FROM  RUSSIA 

In  1915  Germany  took  the  whole  of  Lithuania  from  Eussia, 
established  custom  houses  and  fixed  the  boundaries  between  Lithu- 
ania, Germany  and  Poland.  The  people  of  this  country  are  being 
called  citizens  of  Lithuania. 

The  only  tie  that  bound  Lithuania  to  Eussia  was  the  Czar, 
as  he  had  the  title  of  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania,  but  now  that  he 
is  deposed,  ipso  facto,  Lithuania  becomes  separated  from  Eussia. 
Eussia  is  now  a  republic,  and  the  hands  of  Lithuania  are  again 
freed. 

In  the  latter  part  of  1917,  Germany  transferred  the  reins  of 
government  in  Lithuania  from  the  German  military  to  the  Lithu- 
anian civil  government. 

The  Lithuanian  Diet  was  called  Sept.  18-22,  1917,  at  the  city 
of  Vilnius ;  215  delegates,  representing  all  parts  of  the  country  and 
all  political  parties  in  Lithuania,  assembled  to  confer  concerning 
the  destiny  of  Lithuania.  The  Valstijos  Taryba  (State  Council) 
composed  of  20  persons — representing  all  political  parties — was 
organized.    The  following  persons  compose  the  Taryba : 

Dr.  Jonas  Basanius,  President  of  the  Lithuanian  Society  of  Sciences 
Mykolas  Birziskas,  Director  of  the  College  of  Vilnius. 
Kazys  Bizauskas,  Instructor  in  College  of  Panevezis. 
Saliamonas  Banaitis,  Member  of  Council  of  City  of  Kaunas. 
Pranas  Dovydaitis,  Director  of  Gimnasia  at  Kaunas,  and  writer. 

43 


Steponas  Kairys,  Chief  Engineer  of  the  City  of  Vilnius. 

Petras  Klimas,  writer. 

Donatas  Malinauskas. 

Rev.  Alfonsas  Petrulis. 

Stanislovas  Narutavicius. 

Rev.  Vladislovas  Mironas. 

Dr.  Jurgis  Saulys,  writer. 

Canon  Kazys  Saulys. 

Jokubas  Sernas,  Instructor  in  College  of  Vilnius. 

Dr.  Antanas  Smetona,  Lawyer.     Editor  of  "Lietuvos  Aidas,"  the  official 

organ  of  the  State  of  Lithuania. 
Jonas  Smilgevicius. 
Rev.  Justinas  Staugaitis,  Publicist. 
Aleksandra  Stulginskas,  Agriculturist. 
Jonas  Vailokaitis,  Merchant. 
Jonas  Vileisis,  Lawyer. 


Althongli  the  Lithuanian  National  Council  was  officially 
recognized  by  Germany,  its  work  was  persistently  hindered  by  the 
German  Government.  Meanwhile  a  Peace  Conference  between 
Russia  and  the  Central  Powers  was  approaching  in  which  the  Lithu- 
anian question  was  most  vitally  involved.  Inspired  by  the  fear  of 
a  partitionment  of  Lithuania,  tlie  Council  December  11,  1917,  ap- 
proached the  German  Government  for  assistance  in  re-establishing 
an  independent  Lithuania.  This  request  was  seized  upon  by 
Germany  as  a  pretext  for  demanding  military,  railway  customs  and 
currency  conventions,  demands  which  the  Council  refused.  This 
resulted  in  postponing  the  date  set  for  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence of  Lithuania — January  8,  1918.  But  on  February  16, 
1918,  despite  German  opposition  the  Lithuanian  Council  formally 
proclaimed  Lithuania  an  independent  State  and  assumed  the  official 
responsibilities  of  the  new  state. 

Feb.  12,  1918,  tlie  Supreme  Lithuanian  Council  in  Switzer- 
land, which  is  safeguarding  tlie  foreign  interests  of  Lithuania,  has 
sent  to  all  belligerent  and  neutral  nations  having  a  diplomatic 
I'epresentative  in  Switzerland,  the  text  of  a  declaration  adopted  by 
the  Taryba  of  Litliuania  at  Vilnius,  proclaiming  the  re-establish- 
ment of  the  independent  status  of  Lithuania  with  Vilnius  as 
capital. 

The  declaration  states  that  despite  all  oppi-essious  of  the  past, 
tlie  Lithuanian  people  have  preserved  their  nationality  and  strength, 
and  they  now  solicit  the  recognition  of  Lithuanian  independence 
by  the  other  nations  of  the  world.  The  delegation  from  the  Council 
was  received  by  all  diplomatic  representatives. 

44 


March  11,  1918,  again,  a  Lithuanian  delegation  from  Vilnius 
called  upon  tlie  German  Chancellor,  Count  von  Hertling,  to  ask  tlie 
recognition  of  the  independence  of  Lithuania. 

On  March  14th,  Germany  replied  to  Lithuania's  repeated  re- 
quests for  recognition  of  her  independence  by  making  her  recog- 
nition dependent  upon  the  Lithuanian  agreement  to  certain  mili- 
tary, customs,  railway  and  currency  conventions. 

As  soon  as  these  German  intentions  became  known  in  tlio 
United  States  of  xlmerica,  the  Lithuanians  residing  in  this  coun- 
try, numbering  about  750,000,  forwarded  to  the  Department  of 
State  and  the  United  States  Senate  at  Washington  the  following 
memorandum-protest,  signed  by  all  Lithuanian  organizations  in 
this  country  and  also  by  individuals. 

The  following  is  a  text  of  the  protest : 

Whereas  the  Imperial  German  Government  has  publicly  an- 
nounced the  intention  to  make  Lithuania  an  integral  part  of  the 
German  Federation — which  really  would  mean  the  annexation  of 
Lithuania — and  to  impose  on  the  people  of  Lithuania,  already 
severely  looted  by  Germans,  a  part  of  the  enormous  war  expenses; 
and 

Whereas  we,  the  undersigned  Litliuanians  and  representatives 
of  the  Lithuanian  organizations  in  the  United  States  of  America, 
know  the  true  desires  of  our  brethren  voiced  by  them  on  many 
occasions  and  demanding,  in  no  uncertain  terms,  the  complete 
political  independence  of  Lithuania;  and 

Whereas  the  Lithuanians  residing  in  the  United  States, 
through  their  duly  elected  delegates  in  convention  assembled,  in 
the  City  of  New  York,  on  March  13th  and  14th,  1918,  declared  and 
proclaimed  by  solemn  resolution  the  patriotic  aspirations  and  true 
national  desire  that  the  independent  Lithuanian  nation,  free  from 
foreign  domination,  be  re-established,  and  that  the  Lithuanians 
shall  stand  united  in  their  support  of  the  principles  laid  down  by 
the  President  in  his  messages  to  the  Congress ;  and 

Whereas  the  claims,  as  enunciated  by  the  Imperial  German 
Government,  are  tending  towards  the  political  and  national  sup- 
pression and  economic  exploitation  of  Lithuania,  which  tendency 
is,  and  will  be,  most  bitterly  resented  by  the  Lithuanian  people  in 
Lithuania  and  abroad. 

Be  It  Therefore  Eesolved,  That  the  Lithuanians  of  America 


45 


hereby  express  their  solemn  protest  against  this  or  similar  attempts 
on  the  part  of  the  German  Government  to  make  Lithuania  a  part 
of  her  territory,  and  they  further  declare  that  the  domination  of 
any  sort  in  Lithuania  by  Germany  or  any  other  foreign  power,  is 
repulsive  to  the  sentiments  of  every  Lithuanian,  and  will  be  opposed 
to  the  utmost  of  their  capacity. 

March  24th,  the  deputation  of  the  Taryba  of  Lithuania  again 
called  upon  the  German  Chancellor,  requesting  the  recognition  of 
Lithuania  as  an  independent  state. 

Eeplying  in  the  name  of  the  German  Government  to  the 
Lithuanian  deputation.  Von  Hertling,  after  a  brief  prelude,  men- 
tioning the  declaration  of  Dec.  11,  1917,  and  also  reminding  the 
Lithuanians  of  the  "alliance"  and  confederation  with  Germany, 
about  shouldering  a  part  of  the  German  war  debt,  expressed  that 
"we  hereby  recognize  Lithuania  as  free  and  independent," 

But  quickly  following  this  recognition  Germany  is  attempting 
to  impose  upon  Lithuania  conditions  wholly  incompatible  with 
her  status  as  an  independent  nation,  and  utterly  repugnant  to  the 
Lithuanian  people.  To  the  ultimate  and  inevitable  victory  of  the 
Allies  must  Lithuania  look  for  the  guarantee  of  her  permanent  in- 
dependence and  international  recognition  as  a  sovereign  state. 

SUMMARY 

The  contents  of  this  booklet  present  the  following  conclusions : 

1.  The  Lithuanian  race  is  the  aborigine  of  the  territory  it 
occupies. 

2.  Lithuania  once  was  the  greatest  State  in  Europe  and  ren- 
dered signal  services  to  European  civilization. 

3.  The  neighboring  States  systematically  and  persistently  strove 
to  overthrow  the  liberty  of  Lithuania;  employing  religion  as  the 
instrument  for  better  accomplishment;  and  only  after  four  hundred 
years  did  they  succeed  in  planting  the  seed  of  anarchy  in  Lithuania. 

4.  Only  a  personal  union  once  existed  between  Lithuania  and 
Poland,  and  at  the  first  opportunity  it  was  annulled  by  the  Lithu- 
anians. 

5.  There  has  never  been  a  real  union  between  these  two  States. 
At  the  conference  of  Lublin,  a  sort  of  confederation  was  formed, 
much  against  the  will  of  Lithuania.  The  King  of  Poland  had  no 
right  to  act  at  that  conference  as  the  Duke  of  Lithuania,  to  compel 

46 


the  representative  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  and  annex  the 
Lithuanian  provinces  to  Poland,  because  a  year  previous  to  this 
conference  he  had  relinquished  the  throne  of  Lithuania.  In  most 
of  the  treaties  with  Poland  there  was  no  pacta  puhlica  only  jus 
privatum. 

6.  During  the  partition  of  Poland  and  Lithuania,  all  relations 
and  ties,  if  any  existed,  were  dissolved. 

7.  Lithuania  has  never  been  conquered  by  Eussia;  only  at- 
tached, never  extinguished,  because  the  Eussian  Czar  had  the  title 
of  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania,  and  transferred  it  to  others  at  each 
coronation — they  used  it  officially. 

8.  The  deposition  of  Czar  Nicholas  II  ipso  facto  again  frees 
Lithuania.  Lithuania's  declaration  of  its  independence  by  the  State 
Council,  and,  later,  the  recognition  of  the  independence  by  the  Ger- 
man Government,  although  partial  and  unsatisfactory,  make  the 
question  of  Lithuania  an  international  one,  which  must  be  finally 
settled  at  the  termination  of  the  war,  by  all  nations  participating 
in  the  Peace  Congress. 

9.  The  Lithuanian  active  participation  in  this  war  by  contribut- 
ing about  a  million  of  her  sons  to  the  Allied  armies,  and  possessing 
a  self-government,  ought  to  entitle  her  to  a  representation  at  the 
Peace  Congress. 

10.  In  spite  of  systematic  Germanization,  Polanization  and 
Eussification,  Lithuania  has  succeeded  in  retaining  her  language, 
customs,  national  life  and  spirit. 

11.  Notwithstanding  severe  oppressions  and  persecutions,  the 
Lithuanians  have  established  educational,  political  and  economic 
institutions  and  are  fully  prepared  for  self-government,  and  for 
the  circle  of  the  Family  of  Nations. 

12.  For  the  assurance  of  a  permanent  peace  to  the  world,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  organized  nations — nations  possessing  character- 
istics herein  described — be  admitted  to  the  Family  of  Nations. 


47 


BOOKS,    PAMPHLETS    AND    JOURNALS    PUBLISHED    BY    THE 
LITHUANIAN  INFORMATION  BUREAUS  AT  WASHING- 
TON,  PARIS,   LAUSANNE   AND   STOCKHOLM 

In  English. 

"A  Memorandum  Upon  the  Lithuanian  Nation,"  Paris,  1911. 

"A  Sketch  of  the  Lithuanian  Nation,"  Paris,  1912. 

"The  Lithuanian,  Ruthenian,  Jewish  and  Polish  Questions,"   London, 

1915. 
"Lithuania  and  the  Autonomy  of  Poland,"  London,  1915. 
"The  Lithuanian  Review,"  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
"Pro-Lithuania,"  Lausanne,  Switzerland. 
"The  Misery  of  the  Lithuanian  Refugees  in  Russia,"  Lausanne,  Switz. 

erland,  1915. 
"Sidelights  on  Life  in  Lithuania,"  Washington,  D.  C. 

In  French 

"Memoire  Sur  la  Nation  Lithuanienne." 

"La  Nation  Lithuanienne,"  Paris. 

"Lithuaniens  et  Polonais,"  par  A.  Jakstis,  Paris,  1913. 

"L'eglise  Polonaise  en  Lithuanie,"  par  Mgr.  C.  Propolanis,  Paris,  1914. 

"La  Situation  de  L'eglise  Catholique  en  Lithuanie,"  par  Dr.  J.  Gabrys, 

Paris,  1915. 
"La  Lituania  Religieuse,"  par  A.  Viskontas,  Ph.  D.,  D.D.,  Geneve,  1917. 
"La  Lituanie  russe  au  point  de  vue  statistique  et  ethnographique,"  par 

A.  Viskontas,  Geneve,  1917. 
"La  Lituanie,"  par  A.  Vilimavicius,  Geneve,  191S. 
"La  Lituanie,  le  territoire  occupe,  la  population  et  I'orientation  de  ses 

idees,"  par  A.  Vilimavicius,  Geneve,  1918. 
"Justice  Allemande,"  par  C.  Rivas,  Geneva-Nancy,  1918. 
"Occupation  Allemande  en  Lituanie,"  par  C.  Rivas,  Geneva,  1918. 
"La  Lituanie  dans  le  passe  et  dans  le  present,"  par  W.   St.  Vldunas, 

Geneve,  1918. 
"La  Lithuanie  sous  la  Botte  allemande,"  par  M.  Ragana,  Paris,  1917. 
"Ober-Ost,  le  plan  annexionniste  allemaud  en  Lithuanie,"  par  C.  Rivas, 

Lausanne,  Switzerland,  1917. 
"Les  Souffrances  du  peuple  Lithuanien,"  par  P.  L.  K.,  Lausanne,  Switz- 
erland, 1917. 
"Pro  Lithuania,"  Lausanne,  Switzerland. 
"Carte  de  la  Lituanie,"  Lausanne,  Switzerland. 
"La  Haute  Trahison  de  44  Polonais,"  Lausanne. 
"Les  Lithuaniens  d'Amerique,"  Lausanne,  1918. 
"L'Etat    Lithuanien    et    le    Gouvernement    de    Suvalkai     (Suvalki)," 

Lausanne,  1918. 
"Observations  du  Delegue  du  Conseil  National  Lithuanien,"  Lausanne, 

1918. 

In   Swedish 

"Litausk  Kultur,"  by  I.  Jurkunas,  Stockholm,  1917. 

In  Lithuanian 

'Kelione  Lietuvon  Didziosios  Kares  Metu,"  by  Rev.  Dr.  Bartuska,  Bos- 
ton, 1916. 
'Delegatu  Kelione  Lietuvon,"  by  Dr.  J.  J.  Bielskis,  Boston,  1916. 

48 

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